We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 August 2019
Most histories of East Africa's precolonial interior only give cursory attention to Islam, especially in histories of present-day west-central Tanzania and the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Most converts to Islam in this context are usually viewed as ‘nominal’ Muslims. This article, by contrast, builds on recent scholarship on other regions and time periods that questions the conceptual validity of the ‘nominal’ Muslim. New converts necessarily questioned their social relationships, ways of living, and ritual practices through the act of conversion. On the shores of Lake Tanganyika, new converts were observable through the act of circumcision, dietary restrictions, abidance by some of Islam's core tenets, and the adoption and adaptation of certain phenomena from East Africa's Indian Ocean coast and islands. Interior populations’ conversion to Islam was bound up with broader coast-interior material, cultural, and religious exchanges.
I wish to thank Richard Reid, Giacomo Macola, the late Jan-Georg Deutsch, Gwyn Campbell, Shane Doyle, and two sets of anonymous readers for The Journal of African History, all of whom provided valuable insights at various stages of this article's formulation. I am also grateful for the support of the Wolfson Foundation and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, both of which funded some of the research for this article. Finally, thank you to the School of Oriental and African Studies and the Indian Ocean World Centre, McGill University for their institutional support. Author's email: philip.gooding@mcgill.ca
1 Sperling, D. C., ‘The coastal hinterland and interior of East Africa’, in Levtzion, N. and Pouwels, R. L. (eds.), The History of Islam in Africa (Athens, OH, 2000), 297Google Scholar.
2 Pallaver, K., ‘Muslim communities, long-distance traders and wage labour along the central caravan road: Tanzania, 19th century’, Storicamente, 8 (2012)Google Scholar, 2, 7; Pallaver, K., ‘New modes of production, urbanization and the development of Islam in nineteenth-century Tanzania’, in Berge, L. and Taddia, I. (eds.), Themes in Modern African History and Culture: Festschrift for Tekeste Negash (Padova, Italy, 2013)Google Scholar, 31, 45; Sperling, ‘The coastal hinterland’, 290; Trimingham, J. S., Islam in East Africa (Oxford, 1964), 56Google Scholar. For a critique of this perspective with a focus on colonial Burundi, see G. Castryck, ‘Living Islam in colonial Bujumbura — the historical translocality of Muslim life between East and Central Africa’, History in Africa (forthcoming), 2–6.
3 Page, M. E., ‘The Manyema hordes of Tippu Tip: A case study in social stratification and the slave trade in Eastern Africa’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 7:1 (1974), 74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Northrup, D., Beyond the Bend in the River: African Labor in Eastern Zaire (Athens, OH, 1988), 24Google Scholar; Rockel, S. J., ‘Slavery and freedom in nineteenth century East Africa: the case of the Waungwana caravan porters’, African Studies, 68:1 (2009), 88CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
4 Sperling, ‘The coastal hinterland’, 288; Trimingham, Islam in East Africa, 26–7.
5 Becker, F., ‘Commoners in the process of Islamization: reassessing their role in the light of evidence from southeastern Tanzania’, Journal of Global History, 3 (2008), 229CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
6 Ibid.
7 Ware, R. T. III, The Walking Qur'an: Islamic Education, Embodied Knowledge, and History in West Africa (Chapel Hill, NC, 2014), 5Google Scholar; Ricklefs, M. C., ‘Rediscovering Islam in Javanese history’, Studia Islamika, 21:3 (2014), 397–418Google Scholar; Prange, S., Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast (Cambridge, 2018), 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
8 See also Lovejoy, P., Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge, 2011), 30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Woodward, M. R., Java, Indonesia and Islam (Dordrecht, NL, 2011), 40–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
9 Horton, M. and Middleton, J., The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society (Oxford, 2000)Google Scholar, 49, 68; Pouwels, R. L., ‘The East African coast, c. 780–1900’, in Levtzion, and Pouwels, (eds.), The History of Islam in Africa, 256, 262–3Google Scholar; Trimingham, Islam in East Africa, 1–2.
10 Bang, A. K., Islamic Sufi Networks in the Western Indian Ocean (c. 1880–1940) (Leiden, 2014), 32–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Glassman, J., Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion, and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856–1888 (Portsmouth, NH, 1994), 138–9Google Scholar; Loimeier, R., ‘Africa south of the Sahara to the First World War’, in Robinson, Francis (ed.), The New Cambridge History of Islam V: The Islamic World in the Age of Western Dominance (Cambridge, 2011), 286–8Google Scholar; Pouwels, ‘East African coast’, 263.
11 Trimingham, Islam in East Africa, 55. See also Bimangu, S. and Tshibangu, T., ‘Contribution à l'histoire de l'implantation de l'islam as Zaïre’, Paideuma: Miteilungen zur Kulturkunde, 24 (1978), 228Google Scholar; Nimtz, A. H. Jr, Islam and Politics in East Africa: The Sufi Order in Tanzania (Minneapolis, 1980), 8–9Google Scholar; Oded, A., Islam in Uganda: Islamization through a Centralized State in Pre-colonial Africa (New York, 1974), 64–5Google Scholar; Pallaver, K., ‘Nyamwezi participation in nineteenth-century East African trade: some evidence from missionary sources’, Africa: Rivista Trimestrale de studi e documentazione dell'Istituto italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, 61:3–4 (2006), 517Google Scholar.
12 Deutsch, J.-G., Emancipation Without Abolition in German East Africa c. 1884–1914 (Oxford, 2006)Google Scholar, 74; Gooding, P., ‘Slavery ‘respectability,’ and being ‘freeborn’ on the shores of nineteenth-century Lake Tanganyika’, Slavery and Abolition, 40:1 (2019), 147–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lovejoy, Transformations, 34; el-Murjebi, H. b. M., L'autobiographie de Hamed ben Mohammed el-Murjebi Tippo Tip (ca. 1840–1905), trans. and ed. Bontinck, F. (Bruxelles, 1974), 191Google Scholar.
13 I am aware that in histories of the East African coast and islands, it is not customary to drop the Swahili prefixes on the root ngwana. However, it is customary to drop Bantu-language-group prefixes such as these in histories of the interior. As this is a history of an interior region, it is thought prudent to follow interior customs rather than coastal ones.
14 This pattern of slavery followed by conversion to Islam, a re-definition of labour roles, and then a form of ‘freedom’ is established in, for example, nineteenth-century West Africanist Islamic history. See, for example, Stilwell, S., ‘The development of “Mamlūk” slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate’, in Lovejoy, P. E. (eds.), Slavery on the Frontiers of Islam (Princeton, NJ, 2004), 103Google Scholar.
15 Allen, J. de V., ‘Town and country in Swahili culture’, in Symposium Leo Frobenius: Perspectives of Contemporary African Studies (Cologne, 1974), 301Google Scholar; Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 2; Horton and Middleton, The Swahili, 115.
16 Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 62; Rockel, S. J., Carriers of Culture: Labor on the Road in Nineteenth-Century East Africa (Portsmouth, NH, 2006), 3–33Google Scholar.
17 Deutsch, Emancipation Without Abolition, 67–74.
18 Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 134.
19 See, for example Council for World Mission / London Missionary Society Archive, London (CWM/LMS) 06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa: Its influence’, Aug. 1881. This is notwithstanding the fact that Muslims sometimes broke the law and enslaved other Muslims or forced new converts within their followings to remain in bondage. See for example P. Lovejoy, ‘Slavery, the Bilād al-Sūdān, and the frontiers of the African diaspora’, in Lovejoy, Slavery on the Frontiers, 17–8.
20 Alpers, E. A., ‘Towards a history of the expansion of Islam in East Africa’, in Ranger, T. and Kimambo, I. N. (eds.), The Historical Study of African Religion (Berkeley, CA, 1972), 172–201Google Scholar; Oded, Islam in Uganda. See also Earle, Jonathan L., Colonial Buganda and the End of Empire: Political Thought and Historical Imagination in Africa (Cambridge, 2017), 144CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
21 Alpers, ‘Towards a history’, 176.
22 Oded, Islam in Uganda, 127.
23 Earle, Colonial Buganda, 147.
24 See P. Gooding, ‘Lake Tanganyika: commercial frontier in the era of long-distance commerce, East and Central Africa, c.1830–1890’ (unpublished PhD thesis, SOAS, 2017), 8–9.
25 Wagner, M., ‘Environment, community and history: “Nature in mind” in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Buha, Western Tanzania’, in Maddox, G., Giblin, J. L., and Kimambo, I. (eds.), Custodians of the Lake: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 191Google Scholar.
26 See, for example Archivio Generale dei Missionari d'Africa, Rome (A.G.M.Afr.) Journal du R. P. Coulbois, 3 June 1884, Chronique Trimestrielles, 26 (Apr. 1885). For the inherent problems of such categorisations, see Allen, ‘Town and Country’, 298–301; Bennett, N. R., ‘Mwinyi Kheri’, in Bennett, (ed.), Leadership in Eastern Africa: Six Political Biographies (Boston, 1968), 148Google Scholar.
27 See, for example Royal Museum of Central Africa, Tervuren (RMCA) HA.01.017-7 Emile Storms, ‘Rapport sur un voyage dans la partie sud de Tanganyika’, 1 Apr. 1884.
28 CWM/LMS/06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa: Its influence’, Aug. 1881; A.G.M.Afr. C.16-73 letter from R. P. Guillet to White Fathers, 20 Aug. 1881; CWM/LMS/06/02/014 letter from D. Picton Jones to R. Wardlaw Thompson, 23 Jan. 1889.
29 CWM/LMS/06/02/005 letter from William Griffith to J. O. Whitehouse, 5 Nov. 1880. See also RMCA HA.01.017-7 Emile Storms, ‘Les Wagoina’.
30 See also McDow, T. F., Buying Time: Debt and Mobility in the Western Indian Ocean (Athens, OH, 2018), 93–7Google Scholar.
31 A.G.M.Afr. C.16-73 letter from R. P. Guillet to White Fathers, 20 Aug. 1881; A.G.M.Afr. Diaire de Kibanga, 16 Oct. 1888; CWM/LMS/06/02/014 letter from D. Picton Jones to R. Wardlaw Thompson, 23 Jan. 1889; CWM/LMS/06/02/015 letter from Alfred J. Swann to R. Wardlaw Thompson, 19 June 1890.
32 CWM/LMS/06/02/007 letter from William Griffith to R. Wardlaw Thompson, 13 Mar. 1882.
33 A.G.M.Afr. C.16-7 Journal du P. Deniaud, 14 Jan. 1880; J. Becker, La vie en Afrique ou trois ans dans L'Afrique Central, Volume II, (Paris, 1887), 45–6; F. Coulbois, Dix années au Tanganyika (Limoges, 1901), 64; Jacques, V. and Storms, E., Notes sur l'ethnographie de la partie orientale de L'Afrique Équatoriale (Bruxelles, 1886) 66–7Google Scholar; Page, ‘Manyema hordes’, 80–1; Rockel, ‘Slavery and freedom’, 95; McDow, Buying Time, 152–3; Rossi, B., ‘Introduction: Rethinking slavery in West Africa’, in Rossi, B. (ed.), Reconfiguring Slavery: West African Trajectories (Liverpool, 2009), 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
34 CWM/LMS/06/02/004 letter from Edward Hore to Joseph Mullens, 16 Apr. 1879; Zanzibar National Archives (ZNA) AA1-23 letter from Edward Hore to John Kirk, 14 Apr. 1879.
35 Becker, Vie en Afrique I, 220–1; CWM/LMS/06/02/005 letter from Walter Hutley to J. O. Whitehouse, 12 Aug. 1880; Page, ‘Manyema hordes’, 72; Rockel, ‘Slavery and freedom’, 87–109.
36 A.G.M. Afr. Diaire de Kibanga, 30 Oct. 1888; RMCA HA.01.017-5. Ramaeckers to AIA, 18 Jan. 1882; Clarence-Smith, W. G., Islam and the Abolition of Slavery (London, 1988), 66Google Scholar; Gooding, ‘Slavery, ‘respectability,’ and being ‘freeborn’,’ 152–3.
37 Bennett, N., Arab Versus European: Diplomacy and War in Nineteenth-Century East Central Africa (London, 1986), 10Google Scholar; Bimangu and Tshibangu, ‘Contribution à l'histoire’, 228; Iliffe, J., A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 78; Northrup, Beyond the Bend, 24; Page, ‘Manyema hordes’, 76–7; Roberts, A. F., A Dance of Assassins: Performing Early Colonial Hegemony in the Congo (Bloomington, IN, 2013), 16Google Scholar; Rockel, ‘Slavery and freedom’, 88.
38 RMCA HA.01.017-7 Emile Storms, ‘Zanzibar’, and Emile Storms, ‘Les Wagoina’.
39 A. Abel, Les Musulmans noirs du Maniema (Bruxelles, 1960), 9.
40 See, for example Horton and Middleton, The Swahili.
41 Fair, L., ‘Dressing up: clothing, class and gender in post-abolition Zanzibar’, The Journal of African History, 39:1 (1998), 68CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 76; Fair, L., ‘Remaking fashion in the Paris of the Indian Ocean: dress, performance, and the cultural construction of a cosmopolitan Zanzibari identity’, in Allman, J. (ed.), Fashioning Africa: Power and the Politics of Dress (Bloomington, IN, 2004), 14–15Google Scholar.
42 See, for example Abel, Les Musulmans noirs, 9; Gordon, D., ‘Wearing cloth, wielding guns: consumption, trade, and politics in the South Central African interior during the nineteenth century’, in Ross, R., Hinfelaar, M., and Peša, I. (eds.), The Objects of Life in Central Africa: The History of Consumption and Social Change, 1840–1980 (Leiden, 2013), 27Google Scholar.
43 See also Castryck, ‘Living Islam’, 8–12.
44 Brennan, J., Taifa: Making Nation and Race in Urban Tanzania (Athens, OH, 2012), 64–5Google Scholar; McCurdy, S., ‘Fashioning sexuality: desire, Manyema ethnicity, and the creation of the “kanga,” ca. 1880–1900’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 39:3 (2006), 441–69Google Scholar.
45 G. Castryck, ‘Bordering the lake: transcending spatial orders in Kigoma-Ujiji’, International Journal of African Historical Studies (forthcoming).
46 A.G.M.Afr. C.16-7. Journal du P. Deniaud, 22 Dec. 1880; S. McCurdy, ‘Transforming associations: fertility, therapy, and the Manyema diaspora in urban Kigoma, Tanzania, c. 1850–1993’ (unpublished PhD thesis, Columbia University, 2000), 74–8; Stanley, H. M., Through the Dark Continent or The Sources of the Nile Around the Great Lakes of Equatorial Africa and Down the Livingstone River to the Atlantic Ocean, Volume II (London, 1878), 67Google Scholar.
47 McCurdy, ‘Transforming associations’, 68–74.
48 See Castryck, ‘Bordering the lake’. Emphasising the coastal traders’ Manyema followers’ desire to convert to Islam directly contradicts Bimangu and Tshibangu, who argue that they had no desire to convert at all. See Bimangu and Tshibangu, ‘Contribution à l'histoire’, 228.
49 Interview with Rashidi Hamisi bin Kasa, Ujiji, 12 Nov. 2013; interview with Zuberi Shabani Aburula, Ujiji, 12 Nov. 2013.
50 Northrup, Beyond the Bend, 24; Page, ‘Manyema hordes’, 74; interview with Selimani Kadudu Musa, Simbo, 13 Nov. 2013; interview with Zuberi Zindino Kalema, Simbo, 13 Nov. 2013. If a West/North African case study is used as precedent, it might be argued that conversions may have taken place on the road between Manyema and Ujiji as well. See J. Hunwick, ‘The religious practices of black slaves in the Mediterranean Islamic world’, in Lovejoy, Slavery on the Frontiers, 150.
51 Interview with Rashidi Hamisi bin Kasa; interview with Fatima Binti Mansour bin Nassour, Ujiji, 12 Nov. 2013.
52 CWM/LMS/06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa: Its professors’, Aug. 1881; Sperling, ‘The coastal hinterland’, 289.
53 Interview with Rashidi Hamisi bin Kasa; interview with Branbati Ali Kiola and Isa Pama Kiola, Ujiji, 12 Nov. 2013; interview with Fatima Binti Mansour bin Nassour; interview with Saidi Hamisi Kunga, Ujiji, 11 Nov. 2013; interview with Selimani Kadudu Musa; interview with Hamisi Ali Juma al-Hey, Ujiji, 14 Nov. 2013. See also Abel, Les Musulmans noirs, 9.
54 Interview with Rashidi Hamisi bin Kasa.
55 Interview with Saidi Hamisi Kunga; interview with Hamisi Ali Juma al-Hey.
56 Interview with Saidi Hamisi Kunga.
57 Becker, ‘Commoners’, 227–49.
58 A.G.M.Afr. letter from C. Randabel to White Fathers, 26 July 1883, Chronique Trimestrielles, 21–22 (Apr. 1884); CWM/LMS/06/02/007 letter from William Griffith to R. Wardlaw Thompson, 13 Mar. 1882; CWM/LMS/06/02/010 letter from John Harris to R. Wardlaw Thompson, 15 Mar. 1885; CWM/LMS/06/02/012 letter from D. Picton Jones to R. Wardlaw Thompson, 14 Nov. 1887.
59 CWM/LMS/06/02/009 letter from D. Picton Jones to R. Wardlaw Thompson, 2 Dec. 1884. See also CWM/LMS/06/02/009 letter from D. Picton Jones to J. O. Whitehouse, 24 June 1884.
60 See also Abel, Les Musulmans noirs, 10–16.
61 Oded, Islam in Uganda, 77–80; Becker, ‘Commoners’, 246; Prange, Monsoon Islam, 3; Ricklefs, ‘Rediscovering Islam’, 397–418.
62 CWM/LMS/06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa: Its influence’, Aug. 1881.
63 Ibid. Livingstone, D., The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa. From Eighteen Hundred and Sixty-Five to His Death. Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained from His Faithful Servants Chuma and Susi, ed. Waller, H. (New York, 1875), 224Google Scholar; Jacques and Storms, Notes sur l'ethnographie, 66.
64 Cameron, V. L., Across Africa (New York, 1877), 116–7Google Scholar; Stanley, Dark Continent I, 253 and II, 89, 157.
65 Earle, Colonial Buganda, 147–8; Oded, Islam in Uganda, 77.
66 A.G.M.Afr. Diaire de Massanze, 5 Sept. 1882; R. P. Colle, Les Baluba, Volume I (Bruxelles, 1913), 273–7; Livingstone, Last Journals, 305; Stanley, Dark Continent II, 89.
67 This may have also influenced the encounter between coastal Muslims and future Yao converts near to Lake Malawi's shores during this period. See Msiska, A. W. C., ‘The spread of Islam and its impact on Yao rites of passage, 1870–1960’, The Society of Malawi Journal, 48:1 (1995), 73Google Scholar. For West/North Africa, Hunwick argues that Muslim slave owners preferred circumcised slaves, even if they were not yet Muslim. See Hunwick, ‘The religious practices of black slaves’, 149, 151.
68 Livingstone, Last Journals, 37.
69 See above; CWM/LMS/06/02/007 letter from William Griffith to R. Wardlaw Thompson, 13 Mar. 1882.
70 CWM/LMS/06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa: Its influence’, Aug. 1881. See also CWM/LMS/06/02/005 letter from Walter Hutley to J.O. Whitehouse, 12 Aug. 1880.
71 CWM/LMS/06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa: Its influence’, Aug. 1881.
72 See also Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 117–20.
73 Hutley, W., The Central African Diaries of Walter Hutley 1877–1881, ed. Wolf, J. B. (Boston, 1976), 106Google Scholar; Médard, H., ‘La traite et escalavage en Afrique Orientale et dans L'Océan Indien: une historiographie éclatée’, in Medard, H., Derat, M.-L., Vernet, T., and Ballarin, M.-P. (eds.), Traites et esclavages en Afrique Orientale et dans l'Océan Indien (Paris, 2013), 47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
74 Interview with Fatima Binti Mansour; interview with Selimani Kadudu Musa; interview with Saidi Hamisi Kunga.
75 Interview with Selimani Kadudu Musa.
76 Wright, M., Strategies of Slaves and Women: Life-stories from East/Central Africa (New York, 1993), 26–8Google Scholar, 47–9.
77 Ibid. 37, 100; Lovejoy, Transformations, 14, 34; McDow, Buying Time, 152.
78 For another case study that emphasises the importance of the domestic sphere in Islamic history, see Hunwick, ‘The religious practice of black slaves’, 149–71.
79 CWM/LMS/06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa: Its influence’, Aug. 1881; Livingstone, Last Journals, 223–4.
80 Becker, Vie en Afrique II, 310. The author's translation.
81 Ibid. 309
82 For a comparison with Buganda, see Earle, Colonial Buganda, 144–5.
83 CWM/LMS/06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa’, Aug. 1881.
84 Murjebi, L'autobiographie, 71, 118, 119.
85 Becker, Vie en Afrique II, 309–10.
86 Rockel, Carriers of Culture, 98.
87 Burton, R. F., The Lake Regions of Central Africa: A Picture of Exploration (New York, 1860), 503CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
88 Becker, Vie en Afrique II, 259; Livingstone, Last Journals, 354; Murjebi, L'autobiographie, 118. See also McCurdy, ‘Transforming associations’, 90, 257, 321.
89 Becker, Vie en Afrique II, 18; Livingstone, Last Journals, 354.
90 Becker, Vie en Afrique I, 463, and II, 18.
91 CWM/LMS/06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa’, Aug. 1881; Livingstone, Last Journals, 224; Jacques and Storms, Notes sur l'ethnographie 66.
92 Iliffe, A Modern History, 78–9; Oded, Islam in Uganda, 66–7; Pallaver, ‘Muslim communities’, 7.
93 Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 134.
94 Oded, Islam in Uganda, 79.
95 Ibid.
96 See, for example Alpers, E. A., ‘“Ordinary household chores”: ritual and power in a 19th-century Swahili possession cult’, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 17:4 (1984), 690CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brown, W. T., ‘Bagamoyo: an historical introduction’, Tanzania Notes and Records, 71 (1970), 79–80Google Scholar; Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 71, 77.
97 See, for example Pouwels, ‘The East African coast’, 251–71.
98 CWM/LMS/06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa: Its professors’, Aug. 1881; Sperling, ‘The coastal hinterland’, 289. Note, the absence of mosques is divergent from Buganda, where they were built throughout much of the kingdom during the late 1860s and early 1870s.
99 CWM/LMS/06/02/006 Walter Hutley, ‘Mahommadanism in Central Africa: Its professors’, Aug. 1881.
100 Becker, Vie en Afrique II, 463. See also Pouwels, ‘The East African coast’, 262.
101 Bennett, ‘Mwinyi Kheri’, 151.
102 See also Abel, Les Musulmans noirs, 37–8.
103 Gwassa, G. C. K. and Mbwiliza, J. F., ‘Social production, symbolism and ritual in Buha: 1750–1900’, Tanzania Notes and Records, 79–80 (1976)Google Scholar, 18; A. Lechaptois, Aux rives du Tanganyika (Algiers, 1913), 169; Roberts, A. F., ‘“Fishers of men”: religion and political economy among colonized Tabwa’, Africa, 54:2 (1984), 49–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schmitz, R. and van Overbergh, C., Les Baholoholo (Bruxelles, 1912), 231–3Google Scholar; Wagner, ‘Environment, community and history’, 178–81, 191.
104 A.G.M.Afr. Diaire de Massanze, 11 Feb. 1881; A.G.M.Afr. Diaire de Kibanga, 11 Feb. 1884, 7 Feb. 1887; Jacques and Storms, Notes sur l'ethnographie, 84; Roberts, Dance of Assassins, 189; Swann, A. J., Fighting the Slave-Hunters in Central Africa: A Record of Twenty-Six Years of Travel and Adventure Round the Great Lakes and of the Overthrow of Tip-pu-Tib, Rumaliza and other Great Slave-Traders (Philadelphia, 1910), 77–8Google Scholar.
105 Hore, E., Tanganyika: Eleven Years in Central Africa (London, 1892), 106–7Google Scholar; Gooding, ‘Lake Tanganyika’, 138–40; Swann, Fighting the Slave-Hunters, 77–8.
106 A.G.M.Afr. C.16-7. Journal du P. Deniaud, 9 Oct. 1879, 21 Oct. 1879; Speke, J. H., ‘Journal of a cruise on Tanganyika Lake, Central Africa’, Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, 86 (1859), 349Google Scholar; Stanley, Dark Continent II, 67.
107 See also Gooding, ‘Lake Tanganyika’, 141–2; Roberts, ‘“Fishers of men”’, 49–50, 54; Wagner, ‘Environment, community and history’, 181–6.
108 Stanley, Dark Continent II, 67.
109 A.G.M.Afr. Diaire de Massanze, 17 Oct. 1882. The author's translation. See also RMCA HA.01.017-7 Emile Storms, ‘Resistance des marcheurs en caravan’.
110 Roberts, ‘“Fishers of men”’, 49–70.
111 A.G.M.Afr. C.16-7 Journal du P. Deniaud, 9, 21 Oct. 1879; A.G.M.Afr. Diaire de Massanze, 17 Oct. 1881; Von Wissmann, Hermann, My Second Journey Through Equatorial Africa from the Congo to the Zambesi in the Years 1886 and 1887, trans. Bergmann, M. J. A. (London, 1891), 258Google Scholar; Jacques and Storms, Notes sur l'ethnographie, 84; National Archives – Royal Geographical Society (NA RGS) JMS/2/144 V. L. Cameron, ‘Diary of a Boat Journey’, 19 Mar. 1874, 1, 3, 4 Apr. 1874.
112 See also Gooding, ‘Lake Tanganyika’, 144–68.
113 Faki, E., Kasiera, E. M., and Nandi, O. M. J., ‘The belief and practice of divination among the Swahili Muslims in Mombasa district, Kenya’, International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology, 2:9 (2010), 216Google Scholar; RMCA Henry Morton Stanley Archive (HMSA) 18. Field Notebook, 31 Aug. 1876; Schoenbrun, D. L., ‘Conjuring the modern in Africa: durability and rupture in histories of public healing between the Great Lakes of East Africa’, The American Historical Review, 111:5 (2006), 1424–7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Wagner, ‘Environment, community and history’, 191.
114 A.G.M.Afr. Diaire de Mkapakwe, 18 Nov. 1884; NA RGS JMS/2/144 V. L. Cameron, ‘Diary of a Boat Journey’, 4 Apr. 1874; RMCA HA.01.017-7 Emile Storms, ‘Rapport de voyage à Oudjidji’, 7 July 1883.
115 Swann, Fighting the Slave-Hunters, 77.
116 Agius, D. A., ‘Decorative motifs on Arabian boats: meaning and identity’, in Starkey, J., Starkey, P., and Wilkinson, T. (eds.), Natural Resources and Cultural Connections of the Red Sea (Oxford, 2007), 105Google Scholar; Agius, D. A., In the Wake of the Dhow: The Arabian Gulf and Oman (Reading, 2009), 52, 67–8Google Scholar, 93.
117 For West/North African case studies in which formerly non-Muslim slaves converted to Islam and adapted pre-existing spiritual practices to their understanding of their new faith, see Hunwick, ‘The religious practices of black slaves’, 149–71; I. M. Montana, ‘Ahmad ibn al-Qāḍī al-Timbuktāwī on the Bori ceremonies of Tunis’, in Lovejoy, Slavery on the Frontiers, 173–98.
