We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
View all Google Scholar citations for this article.
With the promulgation of the Sudanese Civil Transactions Act, 1984, in February, 1984, the Republic of the Sudan joined several other Arab countries (e.g. Egypt, Jordan, Iraq and Libya) which have codified major areas of their non-criminal law. The Sudan's previous attempt at such codification was short-lived: the Civil Code, 1971 was repealed in 1973. Although many sectors of the Sudanese legal establishment have been critical of the 1984 legislation, because of questions regarding the quality of the draftsmanship and the absence of its circulation for comment prior to promulgation, it remains the most comprehensive single piece of legislation since the 1971 Civil Code, covering such topics as contract, sales, tort, gift, insurance, bailment and property, both real and personal.
This article will survey all current Sudanese legislation affecting real property, including, most importantly, the Civil Transactions Act, 1984. Because there are more than twenty-five separate legislative acts in the Sudan relating to land, comprising more than six hundred relevant sections, the discussion herein must of necessity be to highlight the major divisions of the current land law, pointing out its distinctive features and those areas in which it appears that conflicts exist as between the various pieces of legislation.
The Civil Transactions Act, 1984 (hereinafter sometimes referred to as “C.T.A.”), was promulgated on 14 February, 1984, and took effect on that date. It comprises some 95 chapters with 819 separate sections, more than one-third of which deal with matters relating to land.
1 Two comprehensive texts on Sudanese land law of substantial use to the researcher are Thompson, Cliff F., The Land Law of the Sudan: Cases and Materials, Khartoum, 1965 (3 vols.); and Mahdi, Saeed Mohamed Ahmed El, Introduction to the Land Law of the Sudan, Khartoum, 1979. An excellent work containing material on land tenure practices respecting agricultural land is Tothill, J. D., ed., Agriculture in the Sudan, London, 1948.
2 The Civil Transactions Act, 1984 was drafted by a small committee within the Presidential Palace, and borrowed heavily from the Civil Codes of Jordan, Egypt, and Iraq. These three latter Civil Codes, in turn, borrowed from the Majalla, a codification of the Islamic law of obligations made during the Ottoman Empire in the years 1869–76 based on the rules of the Hanafi school of Islam. See generally, Coulson, N., A History of Islamic Law, 1964, 151–52; Onar, “The Majalla”, in Khadduri, M. & Liebesny, H. (eds) Law in the Middle East, Vol. 1: Origin and Development of Islamic Law, 1955, 292–308; Badr, , “The New Egyptian Civil Code and the Unification of the Laws of the Arab Countries”, (1956) TulaneL. Rev. 30, 299; Jwaideh, , “The New Civil Code of Iraq”, (1953) 22 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 176; Liebesny, , “Impact of Western Law in the Countries of the Near East”, (1953) 22 Geo. Wash. L. Rev., 127; Anderson, , “The Shari'a and Civil Law: The Debt Owed by the New Civil Codes of Egypt and Syria to the Shari'a”, (1954) 1 Islamic Q 29. On the process of the codification of Islamic Law, see Schacht, , “Problems of Modern Islamic Legislation”, (1960) 12 Studia Islamica, 99. Two English translations of the Majalla from the original Turkish are contained in Hooper, C., The Civil Law of Palestine and Trans-Jordan, Jerusalem, 1933, and Tyser, C., Demetriades, D. & Effendi, I., The Majelle, Nicosia, 1901; reprinted Lahore, 1967.
3 Interpretation of Laws and General Clauses Act, 1974, sec. 7(1), 7 Laws of the Sudan 136 (5th ed. 1982).
4 For a discussion of recent legal developments in the Sudan, see Gordon, , “The Islamic Legal Revolution: The Case of Sudan”, (1985) 19 Int'l Law, 793.
The continued retention of shari'a-based legislation in Sudan is controversial as among various Sudanese political parties. The campaign leading up to national elections in Sudan scheduled for April 1986 involved in part a debate regarding whether or not this legislation, particularly the criminal provisions, should be repealed or amended. On this controversy, see Sudanow, 01. 1986, at 8–13.
5 Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.6(2) (promulgated 18 August, 1983). The history of this provision as set forth in earlier legislation is detailed in Gordon, , above n.4, at 801, n.48. See generally, Mustafa, Z., The Common Law in the Sudan: An Account of the “Justice, Equity and Good Conscience” Provision, Oxfordq, 1971.
5a Judgments (Basic Rules) Act, 1983, s.3 (promulgated 28 September, 1983).
6 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.3.
6a Decree no. 5 issued by the Chairman of the Transitional Military Council on or about 9 04, 1985. Soon after the change in government, Sudan's 1973 Constitution was suspended, the national and regional legislative assemblies were dissolved, and the sole legal political party under the 1973 Constitution, the Sudan Socialist Union, was dissolved. On 10 October, 1985, the Transitional Military Council promulgated The Transitional Constitution of the Sudan, 1985 which replaced the 1973 Constitution. Article 133 of the 1985 Constitution states:
“Subject to the provisions of this Constitution, all laws valid immediately before this Constitution took effect shall continue unless repealed or amended by the competent authority.”
Article 3 of the 1985 Constitution provides that the Constitution shall prevail over the provisions of any inconsistent legislation.
7 This was the position taken in rulings by certain judges during the last year of the Nimeiri government. For the future, it is unclear whether s.3 of the Judgments (Basic Rules) Act, 1983 will be similarly construed. An English translation of the full text of this latter Act is contained in Gordon, , above n.4, at 814–15.
8 Thompson, C., above n.l, vol. 1, 5.
8a Customary law has played an important role in the evolution of the Sudanese legal system. In Shandag Adam Mem Alia v. Ibrahim Yousif Khamgan, (1973) J., Sudan L. & Rep. 33, 35, the Sudan Supreme Court stated:
“Even though the existence of an alleged custom is proved, the Court may refuse to accord it judicial recognition if it does not conform with the demands of justice or public order.”
The Evidence Act, 1983 (promulgated 6 October, 1983) states at s.17(3) (f) that a court shall take judicial notice of “general Sudanese customs recognized by the courts provided that they are not in contravention of the provisions of Shari'a law.” On the history of customary law in the Sudan, see generally Deng, , “The Future of Customary Law in the Sudan”, (1969) 11 L., Malaya Rev., 268; Thompson, , “The Formative Era of the Law of the Sudan”, (1965) J., Sudan L. & Rep. 474, 477; Rannat, , “The Relationship Between Islamic and Customary Law in the Sudan”, [1960] 4 J. A. L 9. With respect to customary law relating to land, see Mahdi, El, “Some General Principles of Acquisition of Ownership of and Rights Over Land by Customary Prescription in the Sudan”, [20] J.A.L. 79; Howell, P., A Manual of Nuer Law 181–90, Oxford, 1954; O'Fahey, R., State and Society in Dar Fur, 49–68, London, 1980; Guttman, “Land Tenure Among the Azande People of Equatoria Province in the Sudan”, (37) Sudan Notes & Rec. 48. On the role of customary law in Shari'a, see generally Schacht, , “Usui”, in Gibb, H. & Kramers, J. (eds) Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1974, 611, 614–15 par. 8;Awa, El, “The Place of Custom (’Urf) in Islamic Legal Theory”, (1973) 17 Islamic Q. 177; Coulson, , “Muslim Custom and Case-Law”, (1961) 6 Die Welt Des Islams 13 (new ser.);Bousquet, , “Islamic Law and Customary Law in French North Africa”, (1950) 32 J. Comp. Legis. & Int'l L. 57 (3d ser.).
9 Noronha, Raymond and Lethem, Francis J., Traditional Land Tenures and Land Use Systems in the Design of Agricultural Projects, Washington, D.C., The World Bank 1983 (StaffWorking Papers, no. 561), 2.
9a Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.4.
10 Id., s.l 1(12) and (13)(b).
11 The Survey Department (Organization) Act, 1974, ss.2 and 3(e), 7 Laws of the Sudan 132 (5th ed. 1982).
12 The Demarcation and Survey Act, 1905, s.3(1), 1 Laws of the Sudan 19 (5th ed. 1976) (as amended 1982).
13 Id., ss.4, 5(a).
14 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.529(1).
15 The Demarcation and Survey Act, 1905, s.7.
16 Simpson, , “Land Tenure: Some Explanations and Definitions”, (1954) 6 J. African Administration 50, reprinted in Thompson, above, n.l, vol. 1, pp. 82ff.
17 I Laws of the Sudan 403 (5th ed. 1976). See generally, Mahdi, Saeed M. A. El, A Guide to Land Settlement and Registration, Khartoum, 1971; Miskin, , “Land Registration”, (1950) 31 Sudan Notes & Records 274; Simpson, , “Land Law and Registration in the Sudan”, (1955) 7 J. African Administration 11.
18 See also, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.558, 559(6), 615(2), 728, 782. Regarding state-owned lands,see Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.559(3), 615(2).
19 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.4.
20 Id. s.5 (as amended 2 12, 1984).
21 Id. s.6.
22 Id s.13, 16.
23 Id ss,15(2), 19,97.
23a Id. s.85.
24 Id. s.20 (as amended 2 12, 1984).
25 Id. s.23.
26 Id. s.28. Notwithstanding this section, there are reported judicial decisions providing exceptions. See, e.g., Siddiq Babiker El Kabis v. Hamad MohamedHassan, (1962) J., Sudan L. & Rep. 17.
27 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.27(f), 85(c). See generally, Thompson, , above n.l, vol. 2, pp. 563–64, vol. 3, p. 655. But see, Prescription and Limitation Act, 1928, ss.2 (last par.), 6A (repealed 1984).
28 The use of the word “land” in this provision was defined broadly to include any interest in land including the right of cultivation. See, Unregistered Land Act, 1970, s.2(1) (repealed 1984);Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.3.
29 The Unregistered Land Act, 1970 (Act no. 23), s.4 (repealed 1984). Exceptions were provided for in cases where a private person could prove his usage of the land “for a long time”, and for cases where the government was satisfied that a person had made “any beneficial use” of the property in question. See, Id., ss.3, 8(4).
30 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.559(3).
31 Id., s.693.
32 Id., ss.559, 560.
32a One feddan equals 1038 acres, or 4200 square metres.
32b Awad, Mohammed Hashim, “The Evolution of Landownership in the Sudan”, (1971) 25 Middle East Jour., 212, 218.
32c Mahdi, El, above, n.l, at 95.
33 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.560.
34 Id., ss.615(2), 651,687(2).
35 See n.26.
36 See n.27. See also, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.641(1), 642(1), 649–50.
37 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.728.
38 Id., s.782.
39 Id., s.559(1). This provision is consistent with the Qur'an 3: 189 which states:
“To God belongeth the Dominion of the heavens and the earth; And God hath power over all things.”
See also, Qur'an 4: 126.
40 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.559 (l)–(3).
41 Id., s.556(l)–(2).
42 Miscellaneous Amendments Act, 1405 (promulgated by the Transitional Military Council on 16 07, 1985). With respect to the problem of the division of authority over land matters, as between the national, regional and local levels of government in the Sudan, see part XIII of this paper.
43 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.519(1)
44 Id., s.615(2).
45 Id., s.516(l)-(2). A more detailed discussion of the permissible use of private land is contained in part VIII of this paper.
46 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.518, 522.
47 Id., s.528.
48 Id., s.523.
49 Id., s.532.
50 Id., ss.655(2), 676, 683(1). See also, Civil Procedure Act, 1983, 2d Schedule s.101–34; and Fluehr-Lobban, & Hillawi, , “Circulars of the Shari'a Courts in the Sudan,” [27] J.A.L. 79.
51 Wills and Administration Act, 1928, ss.4–6, 2 Laws of the Sudan 117 (5th ed. 1976); Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.655(3), 679.
52 See, generally, Coulson, N., Succession in the Muslim Family, Cambridge, 1971; Pearl, D., A Textbook of Muslim Law, London, 1979, 144ff; Vesey-Fitzgerald, S., Muhammadan Law: An Abridgement According to its Various Schools 111 et seq., Oxford 1931, 11ff; Anderson, , “Recent Reforms in the Islamic Law of Inheritance”, (1965) 14 Int'l & Comp. L.Q. 349; Makdisi, , “Fixed Shares in Intestate Distribution: A Comparative Analysis of Islamic and American Law”, (1984) Brigham Young Univ. L. Rev. 267.
53 See, Tothill, “The Problem of Land Fractionation”, in Tothill, , ed., above, n.l, at 210ff.
54 Awad, , above, n.32b, at 227. See also, “Report of the Land Registration Committee,” 14 04, 1929, reprinted in Thompson, , above, n.l, vol. 2 at 399, 419.
54b Hassan Fadl El Mula v. Zeinab Fadl El Mula, 1956 Sudan Law Jour. & Reports 90; Heirs of Neima Khidir, 1959 Sudan Law Jour. & Reports 53; Heirs of Siddig Ahmed Kambal v. Said Ahmed Kambal, 1962 Sudan Law Jour. & Reports 152.
55 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.533(1). See also, s.664 as to disposition of property obtained from a decedent's estate, and s.540(l) regarding land held in family ownership.
56 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.30.
57 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.558(1), 819; Interpretation of Laws and General Clauses Act, 1974, s.6(3).
58 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.534 (l)–(2).
59 Id., s.534(4).
60 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, ss.99–100. See also, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.534(5), which provides for the appointment of a director to manage the property.
61 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.536.
62 Id., ss.538–42.
63 Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.135.
64 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.537(2).
65 Id., ss.537(l), 678(2).
66 Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.134.
67 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, ss.31–32.
68 Civil Procedure Act, 1983, ss.137(1)(b).
69 See particularly, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.559.
70 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, ss. 16(c), 19A.
71 Land Acquisition Act, 1930, ss.4(1), 31, 2 Laws of the Sudan 239 (5th ed. 1976). See also, The Acquisition Act, 1970 (Act no. 20).
72 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.517(2).See also, Permanent Constitution of the Sudan, 1973, art. 34 (suspended 1985);Transitional Constitution, 1985, art. 25.
73 Land Acquisition Act, 1930, s.8.
74 Id., s.10.
75 Id., s.9.
76 Id., s.14.
77 Id., s.19.
78 Id., s.23.
79 Id., s.22.
80 Land, Gezira Act, 1927, 2 Laws of the Sudan 42 (5th ed. 1976); The Rahad Corporation Act, 1972, 6 Laws of the Sudan 231 (5th ed. 1982); The Western Savannah Development Corporation Act, 1978, 11 Laws of the Sudan 48 (5th ed. 1982). These schemes are discussed in part XII of this paper.
81 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.615(2);Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, ss. 33–36, 54.
82 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.33(a).
83 Id., s.36.
84 Id, s.37.
85 Id., ss. 34, 54. See, e.g., Land Registration Rules, 1925, s.5, 7 Laws of the Sudan 40 (4th ed. 1955).
86 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.615(2).
87 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.28.
88 See notes 50–51, supra.
89 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.679(a).
90 Id., s.682(2).
91 Id., s.683(l).
92 Id., s.683(2); Wills and Administration Act, 1928, ss.5–6.
93 Coulson, , Succession in the Muslim Family 235et seg; Rahman, Tanzil Ur, A Code of Muslim Personal Law, Karachi, Islamic Publishers, 1980, vol. 2, 302–312.
93a This subject was previously regulated by the Prescription and Limitation Act, 1928, 2 Laws of the Sudan 109 (5th ed. 1976) (repealed 1984).
94 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.555(1).
95 Id., s.559.
96 Id., ss.560(l) and (4), 568, 572(1).
97 Id., s.631(l). See also s.31.
98 Id., s.641(l).
99 Id., ss.644–45.
100 Id., ss.641 (2), 642–43.
101 Id., s.649.
102 Id., ss.560, 651. See text adjacent to notes 95–96, supra.
103 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.27(2), 651.
103a Id., s.697(4).
104 Id., s.650.
105 Thompson, above, n.l, vol. 2, 563. See, Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.27(f).
106 This subject was previously regulated by the Pre-Emption Act, 1928, 2 Laws of the Sudan 100 (5th ed. 1976) (repealed 1984).
107 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.616.
108 Id., ss.617–18.
109 Id., s.620(l).
110 Id, s.626(l)–(2).
111 Id., s.623.
112 Thompson, above, n.l, vol. 3, 878.
113 Mohamed Osman El Mubarak v. Abdel Rahim Salih Saeed, (1963) Sudan Law Jour. & Reports 209, 217; Vesey-Fitzgerald, , above, n.52, at 230–1; Doi, Abdur Rahman I., Shari'ah: The Islamic Law, London, 1984, 341–45.
114 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.516(3).
115 Id., s.516(4). But see, s.556, and the Mines and Quarries Act, 1972, and the Petroleum Resources Act, 1972, which vest the ownership of oil and minerals in the government.
120 Id., s.560(6). But see part XIII of this paper at notes 360ff.
121 Id., s.566(l)–(2).
122 Id., s.561.
123 Id., s.569(4).
124 Id., s.570(l)–(3).
125 Id., s.570(5).
126 Id., s.560(3).
127 Id., ss.573(l),695.
128 Id., s.659(a).
129 Id., s.569(l).
130 Id., s.568.
131 Id., s.573(4).
131 Id., s.573(2).
133 Id., ss.573(3), 695(h)(2).
134 Id., s.695(f).
135 Id., 8.695(d).
136 Id., s.572(l).
137 Id., s.573(6).
138 Id., s.696(a).
139 Id., ss.572(3), 696(b). But see s.707(2).
140 Id., s.570(6).
141 Id., ss.569(l), 697(1).
141a Id., s.692(2).
141b Id., s.570(5).
141c Id., s.615(l).
142 Id., s.574.
143 Id., ss.523, 576.
144 Id., ss.576(l),584.
145 Id., s.576(3).
146 Id., ss.528(2), 588–91.
147 Id., s.575.
148 Id., s.581(l).
149 Id., s.592(l).
150 Id., s.593.
151 Id., s.592(2).
152 Nile Pumps Control Act, 1939, 3 Laws ofthe Sudan 2 (5th ed. 1976). For a discussion of pump schemes operating in the Sudan, see, Tothill, above, n.l, at 611–18.
153 Id., s.9. With respect to riparian land rights, see, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.602–05.
154 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.592(3).
155 Id., s.524.
156 Id., s.560(l).
157 Id., s.524.
158 Id., ss.597, 525.
159 Id., s.594.
160 Id., s.565(l)(a)–(b).
161 Id., s.565(l)(c)–(d).
162 Id., s.565(l)(e). But see s.531 regarding the cutting of overhanging branches from adjoining property.
163 See, The Central Forests Act, 1932, 2 Laws of the Sudan 299 (5th ed. 1976); The Provincial Forests Act, 1932, 2 Laws of the Sudan 310 (5th ed. 1976).
164 Central Forests Act, 1932, s.9; Provincial Forests Act, 1932, s.6.
165 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.516(1).
166 Id., s.516(2).
167 Id., ss.322–348. Agricultural leases are discussed in part IX of this paper.
168 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.569(1), 697(1).
169 Id., ss.694, 704(1).
170 Id., s.560(l).
171 Id., s.608(l).
172 Id., s.608(2).
173 Id., s.610(l).
174 Id., ss.707(a), 696(a). With respect to the duration of leases, see ss.301–02.
175 Id., ss.573(2) and (6), 707(c).
176 Id., ss.570, 572(1).
177 See notes 101–104 for references to provisions setting forth the length of the period of time for which possession must be maintained after which the grower cannot be evicted.
178 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.516(4).
179 Id., s.556(2).
180 Id., s.556( 1). It is unclear how this section inter-relates with the Zakat and Taxes Act, 1984, s.17, which refers to a levy on minerals at the rate of 2·5 per cent. See also, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.695(a), which purports to give the holder of usufruct rights to all things produced on the land.
181 The Mines and Quarries Act, 1972, s.4, 6 Laws of the Sudan 261 (5th ed. 1982).
182 Id., s. 11.
183 Above, n.57.
184 As defined in the Petroleum Resources Act, 1972, s.3, 6 Laws of the Sudan 250 (5th ed. 1982).
185 Id., s.4.
186 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.556. But see s.695(a).
187 Id., s.295.
188 Compare the definition of “usufruct” in s.693.
189 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.296(4).
190 Id., s.558(1); Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.48.
191 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.52(1). Under s.52(2) of this 1925 Act, the land register may order that any lease be registered.
192 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.298(1).
193 See, The Rent Restriction Act, 1953, 4 Laws of the Sudan 25 (5th ed. 1976) (repealed 1982); The Rent Restriction Act, 1982, Sudan Gazette Legislative Supp. no. 1304 (28 09, 1982) (repealed 1984). See generally, Thompson, , “The Sudan Law of Landlord and Tenant and the Judicial Interpretation of the Rent Restriction Ordinance, 1953”, (1962) Sudan L.J. & Rep. 411; Mahdi, El and Thompson, , “Report of Law Reform of the Sudan Law of Landlord and Tenant”, (1970) J, Sudan L.. & Rep. 108.
194 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.299 (as amended 12 1985). Under the Civil Transactions (Amendment) Act, 1406, promulgated by the Transitional Military Council on 4 December 1985, after consultations with the Council of Ministers, see Provisional Constitution, 1985 art. 36, 52, ss.298–300 of the C.T.A. were amended.
195 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.300(1) (as amended 12 1985).
196 Under Id., s.300(3) (as amended 12 1985), the increase or decrease in rental pursuant to court order is to take effect only from the date of the court–s judgment without retroactive effect.
197 Id., s.298(7) (as amended 12 1985).
198 Id., s.300(2) (as amended 12 1985).
199 Id., s.298(3).
200 Id., s.316(3).
191 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.52(1). Under s.52(2) of this 1925 Act, the land register may order that any lease be registered.
192 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.298(1).
193 See, The Rent Restriction Act, 1953, 4 Laws of the Sudan 25 (5th ed. 1976) (repealed 1982); The Rent Restriction Act, 1982, Sudan Gazette Legislative Supp. ho. 1304 (28 09, 1982) (repealed 1984). See generally, Thompson, , “The Sudan Law of Landlord and Tenant and the Judicial Interpretation of the Rent Restriction Ordinance, 1953”, (1962) Sudan, L.J. & Rep. 411; Mahdi, El and Thompson, , “Report of Law Reform of the Sudan Law of Landlord and Tenant”, (1970) Sudan, L.J. & Rep. 108.
194 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.299 (as amended 12 1985). Under the Civil Transactions (Amendment) Act, 1406, promulgated by the Transitional Military Council on 4 December 1985, after consultations with the Council of Ministers, see Provisional Constitution, 1985 art. 36, 52, ss.298–300 of the C.T.A. were amended.
195 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.300(1) (as amended 12 1985).
196 Under Id., s.300(3) (as amended 12 1985), the increase or decrease in rental pursuant to court order is to take effect only from the date of the court–s judgment without retroactive effect.
197 Id., s.298(7) (as amended 12 1985).
198 Id., s.300(2) (as amended 12 1985).
199 Id., s.298(3).
200 Id., s.316(3).
201 Id., s.317(1).
202 Id., s.301(1).
203 Id., s.301(2).
204 Id., s.301(3).
205 Id., s.301(4)–(5).
206 Id., s.304.
207 Id., s.321(1).
208 Id., s.321(4).
209 Id., s.321(5).
210 Id., s.316(4).
211 Id., s.317.
211a Id., s.311.
212 Id., s.319(3)–(4).
213 Id., ss.309(1), 312(1), 327(b).
214 Id., s.312(2).
215 Id., ss.310, 312(5).
216 Id., s.315(3)–(4).
217 Id., s.315(1).
218 Id., ss.315(5), 327(a).
219 Id., s.298.
220 Id., ss.315(6), 327(c), 324(2).
221 Id., s.319(1).
222 Id., s.320(1)–(2).
223 Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.56.
224 See also, Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.703–06; and the sections of this paper in part VIII elating to usufruct and the cultivation of crops.
225 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.323(1).
226 Id., s.323(2)(b).
227 Id., ss.326, 697. But see ss.319(3)–(4).
228 Id., s.328(1).
229 Id., s.328(2).
230 Id., s.328(3). Provisions relating to insurance are contained in the Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.475–83. See also, Insurers (Control) Act, 1960, 4 Laws of the Sudan 304 (5th ed. 1976). See generally, Siddiqi, M. N., Insurance in an Islamic Economy, Leicester, 1985;Muslehuddin, M., Insurance and Islamic Law, New Delhi, 1969;Rahman, Afzalur, Economic Doctrines of Islam: Banking and Insurance, London, 1979.
231 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.329, 330(2), 331(1).
232 Id., s.330(4).
233 Id., s.330(1)(b).
234 Id., s.331(4).
235 Id., s.332.
236 Id., s.333(2).
237 Id., s.333(1).
238 Id., s.333(3).
239 Id., s.334.
240 Id., s.335.
241 Id., s.337.
242 Id., s.340(1).
243 Id., s.341.
244 Id., s.343.
245 Id., s.344.
246 Id., s.345.
247 Id., s.346.
248 Id., s.348.
249 Id., s.316(4).
250 Id., s.334.
251 Id., s.328(2).
252 See the “Explanatory Note” issued by the Office of the Legal Secretary at the time of the promulgation of the Agricultural Tenants Protection Act, 1950, which notes the objectives referred to in the text.
253 See generally, Wilmington, , “Aspects of Moneylending in Northern Sudan”, (9) Middle East Jour. 139 (1955);Lees, Francis A. and Brooks, Hugh C., The Economic and Political Development of the Sudan, London, 1977, 94–96.
254 The legislation referred to in n.255 applies to the Gezira Scheme, the Gash Delta in Kassala Province, the Tokar Delta, and some 348 smaller schemes in the areas of Dueim, Kosti, Fung, Sennar, Shendi, and the Northern Sudan (as of 1976). The names and locations of these 348 schemes are listed in a schedule to the Agricultural Tenant's Protection Act, 1950, 3 Laws of the Sudan 412 (5th ed. 1976).
255 Agricultural Tenant's Protection Act, 1950, s.4;Tokar Delta (Tenants Protection) Act, 1943, s.3,3 Laws of the Sudan 330 (5th ed. 1976);The Gezira Land Act, 1927, s. 13,3 Laws of the Sudan 42 (5th ed. 1976);The Gash Delta Tenants Act, 1928, s.4, 2 Laws of the Sudan 141 (5th ed. 1976).
256 Id.
257 See generally, Vesey-Fitzgerald, , above, n.52, at 206–24;Anderson, Norman, Law Reform in the Muslim World, London, 1976, 162–69;Rahman, Tanzil Ur, above, n.93, at 101–73;Anderson, , “Waqfs in East Africa”, [3]J.A.L. 152; Fratcher, “The Islamic Wakf”, (36) Missouri Law Rev. 153:Anon., “Waqf”, (1914) (4) Moslem World 173.
258 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.709(1).
259 Id., s.709(2).
260 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.710.
261 Id., s.712, 717. With respect to charitable trusts not governed by Islamic law, see The Charitable Trusts Act, 1971, 6 Laws of the Sudan 47 (5th ed. 1982).
261a Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.725; The Religious Affairs and Wakfs Act, 1980, s.7, 11 Laws of the Sudan 136 (5th ed. 1982).
262 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.712.
263 Id., s.711.
264 Id., s.714. But see, The Islamic Charitable (Wakf) Trusts Act, 1970 (Act no. 116, amended byRepublican Order no. 48 of 1972), s.7.
265 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.726.
266 Islamic Charitable (Waqf) Trusts Act, 1970, s.5.
267 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.713.
268 W., s.556(3).
269 Id., s.623(1).
270 Id., s.302, 303, 349–58.
271 Id., s.727 733(3). See generally, Mahdi, El, above, n.1, at 200ff.
271a Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.735(1).
272 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.729–30, 733(1).
273 Id., s.748.
274 Id., s.759(1).
275 Id., s.728; Land Settlement and Registration Act, 1925, s.60.
276 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.747, 749, 750, 752.
277 Id., s.739(2).
278 Id., s.759(3).
279 Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.122–23.
280 Id., s.124; Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.744(1), 750(1), 754(2), 756(1).
281 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.745.
282 Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.123, 127.
283 Id., s. 124–33.
284 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.281.
285 Civil Procedure Act, 1983, s.110; Civil Circular no. 40 (issued by the Chief Justice of the Sudan Supreme Court on 5 January 1985).
286 Compare The Civil Procedure Act, 1983, ss.121(1), 128(1), 131(1), with the same sections in the now-repealed Civil Procedure Act, 1974.
287 Qur'an 2: 275–80, 3:130, 4:161, 30: 39.
288 Ali, A. Yusuf, The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary, Leicester, (3d ed.) 1975, 1062 n.3552.
289 See, e.g., Siddiqi, Muhammad N., Banking Without Interest, Leicester, 1983;Siddiqi, Muhammad N., Partnership and Profit-Sharing in Islamic Law, Leicester, 1985.
290 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.766, 770.
291 Id., s.768(1).
292 Id., ss.767(3), 768(3).
293 Id., s.777(1).
294 Id., s.779(1),(3).
294a Id., s.786–87.
295 Id., s.779(6).
296 Id., s.782.
297 See also, Gash Delta Tenants Act, 1928; and Tokar Delta Tenants Act, 1943, as discussed in art IX of this paper with respect to tenant protection legislation.
298 Tothill, , above, n.l, at 598.
299 Id., at p. 600.
300 Holt, P. M. and Daly, M. W., The History of the Sudan, London, (3d ed.) 1979, 139.
301 This notice of 15 03, 1920 is reprinted in 1 Laws of the Sudan 542 (rev. ed. 1927).
302 Gezira Land Ordinance, 1921, 1 Laws of the Sudan 537 (rev. ed. 1927) (repealed 1927). See also, The Gezira Land (Amendment) Ordinance, 1923, 2 Laws of the Sudan 618 (rev. ed. 1927) (repealed 1927).
303 Board, Sudan Gezira, The Gezira Scheme: Past and Present, Barakat, 1977, 8–9. See generally, Sudanow, 03, 1980, 33–46; January, 1983, 38–39; February, 1985, 15–16.
304 Some details of this arrangement are set forth in Macmichael, Harold, The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, London, 1934, 189–96.
305 The operations of the Sudan Gezira Board were originally set forth in the Ordinance, Gezira Scheme, 1950, 7 Laws of the Sudan 119 (4th ed. 1955), repealed and replaced by the Gezira Scheme Act, 1960, 4 Laws of the Sudan 260 (5th ed. 1976) (repealed June 1984).
306 The Gezira Scheme Act, 1984, s.11 (passed by the People's Assembly on 15 May, 1984, and approved by President Nimeiri on 5 June, 1984). See generally, Beer, “The Social and Administrative Effects of Large-Scale Planned Agricultural Development”, (1953) 5 J. African Administration 112.
307 The Gezira Scheme Act, 1984, s.25fr.
308 Id., schedule II.
309 Gezira Scheme Act, 1960, schedule III and IV (repealed 1984).
310 Id., s.28 and schedule IV (repealed 1984).
311 The Gezira Land Act, 1927, 2 Laws of the Sudan 42 (5th ed. 1976).
312 Id., s.8(4).
313 Id., s.8(1)and(2).
313a Id., s.9. This section also provides for compensation for any buildings acquired by the government, and for timber or for damage to crops standing on the land at the time when possession is taken.
313b The Gezira Land Ordinance, 1921, s.8, 1 Laws of the Sudan 537 (rev. ed. 1927) (repealed 1927).
314 Gezira Land Act, 1927, s.11.
315 Tothill,.supra n.l, at771.
316 Gezira Land Act, 1927, s.14.
317 See part IX(d) of this paper relating to tenant protection legislation.
318 Gezira Land Act, 1927, s.16.
319 See part V of this paper relating to land registration.
320 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, s.559.
321 Gezira Scheme Act, 1984, s.18.
322 Waterbury, John, Hydropolitics of the Nile Valley, Syracuse, 1979, 197.
323 Holt, and Daly, , above, n.300, 211.
324 Lees, and Brooks, , above, n.253, 49 and 151 n.11.
325 6 Laws of the Sudan 231 (5th ed. 1982).
326 Rahad Corporation Act, 1972, s.4.
327 Id.
328 Land Acquisition Act, 1930, 2 Laws of the Sudan 239 (5th ed. 1976), discussed in part VH(a) of this paper.
329 Rahad Corporation Act, 1972, s.9(2)–(3).This Act refers to the President of the Republic, however Decree no. 5, 1405 (issued on or about 9 04, 1985) states that all references in legislation to the powers of the President shall be read to mean the Transitional Military Council. Decree no. 5 were superseded by the Sudanese Laws Coordination Act, 1406, s.3, 5(1) (promulgated 8 12, 1985).
330 Rahad Corporation Act, 1972, s.16.
331 Id., s.17.
332 Id., s.18(1).
333 Id.
334 Id., s.18(2).
335 Id., s.34.
336 Id., s.35–36.
337 Id., s.37(2).
338 The Western Savannah Development Corporation Act, 1978, 11 Laws of the Sudan 48 (5th ed. 1982).
339 Id., s.4.
340 Id., s.5(4), 10(9).
341 Id., s.5(9).
342 Id., see note 329.
343 Western Savannah Development Corporation Act, 1978, s.5(9). See note 328.
344 Id., s.10(9).
345 Id., s.10(ll).
346 Id., s.22–27.
347 Id., s.31.
348 This legislation includes: The Approved Enterprises (Concessions) Act, 1956 (1956 Act no. 8) (repealed 1967);The Organisation and Promotion of Industrial Investment Act, 1967 (1967 Act no. 55) (repealed 1972);The Development and Promotion of Industrial Investment Act, 1972 (1972 Act no. 58) (repealed 1974);The Development and Promotion of Agricultural Investment Act, 1976 (1976 Act no. 19) (repealed 1981). This and other investment promotion legislation is outlined in Gordon, C. N., A Survey of Sudanese Economic Legislation: Consistency or Conflict? Univ. of Khartoum Development Studies and Research Center, Seminar paper no. 57 (1984), 9–19. See generally, Fath, Abdallah, El RahmanSheikh, El, The Legal Regime of Foreign Private Investment in the Sudan and Saudi Arabia, Salacuse, “The Law of Foreign Investment in the Sudan”, (1979) 1 Khartoum Law Review 27.
349 The Encouragement of Investment Act, 1981, 11 Laws of the Sudan 225 (5th ed. 1982) (1980 Provisional Order no. 17, confirmed as 1981 Act no. 20).
350 Id., s.5(1).
351 Id., s.6.
352 Id., ss.9–10, 12.
353 Id., s.11.
354 Id., s.13.
355 Id., s.14.
356 Id., s. 18(2). For other restrictions on projects granted investment concessions, see ss. 18,21, and 23 of the 1981 Act.
357 Id., s.19.
358 Id., s.20.
359 Id., s.25–31.
360 Civil Transactions Act, 1984, ss.560(6), 561, 566, 569(4). See parts V and VIII(a) of this paper respecting this matter.
361 11 Laws of the Sudan 158 (5th ed. 1982).
362 The writer is unclear as to the current status of regional government in the southern Sudan. Prior to June 1983, the southern Sudan constituted one region governed by the Southern Provinces Regional Self-Governmental Act, 1972, 6 Laws of the Sudan 213 (5th ed. 1982), and the High Executive Council and the People's Regional Assembly Act, 1981, 11 Laws of the Sudan 366 (5th ed. 1982). In June 1983, however, former President Nimeiri issued Presidential Order no. 1, 1983, which divided the southern Sudan into three regions: Equatoria, Bahr el Ghazal, and Upper Nile. (Pres. Order no. 1,1983, is reprinted in the Sudan Gazette, Legislative Supplement no. 1317, dated 10 June, 1983). In April 1985, the Transitional Military Council in its Decree no. 14 abrogated Pres. Order no. 1, 1983. The High Executive Council and the People's Regional Assembly Act, 1981 was retroactively repealed effective 25 April, 1985 as a result of the Sudanese Laws Coordination Act, 1406, s.1, 2(5) (promulgated 8 12, 1985 by the Transitional Military Council). A Transitional High Executive Council has been appointed to govern the former three regions in the southern Sudan, but its authority and powers are as yet unclear. Moreover, as of December 1985, the Transitional High Executive Council had apparently not yet undertaken its duties in the southern Sudan. See Sudanow 12 1985 at 15. The Transitional Constitution, 1985, art. 16(2) provides that the southern Sudan is to be governed in accord with the Southern Provinces Regional Self-Government Act, 1972. In certain areas of the South, however, a civil war is being fought between the Sudan government military and the rebel forces of the Sudan People's Liberation Army. As of late 1985, limited negotiations between the two sides were proceeding in an attempt to resolve the dispute. The north-south dispute within the Sudan dates back to the period preceding Sudanese independence. See generally Beshir, Mohamed Omer, The Southern Sudan: Background to Conflict, 1968.
363 Regional Government Act, 1980, s.6 (as amended by the Miscellaneous Amendments Act, 1405, issued by the Transitional Military Council on 16 07, 1985). The National Capital Act, 1983, and the People's Local Government Act, 1981 were similarly amended.
364 Regional Government Act, 1980, s.8(1) (deleted 1985).
365 Id., s.8(h) and (i).
366 Id f., s. 86(1)(d).
367 Id., s. 86(2).
368 See note 363, supra.
369 In undertaking such research, the terms of “The Amendments (Consequential to the Making of the Decentralization Laws) Act, 1982” (promulgated by former President Nimeiri on I 07, 1982) must be considered. This Act amended 78 statutes with regard to die assignment of authority within the Sudanese government to undertake various functions. See also, Sudanese, Laws Coordination Act, 1406 (promulgated 8 12, 1985).
* Member of the Bars of Ohio and of the District of Columbia; Visiting Lecturer in Law in the University of Khartoum, 1984–86. The author expresses his appreciation for the assistance given to him by Honorable Ali Ibrahim El Imam of the Sudan Judiciary, Professor Hunud Kadouf of the University of Khartoum, and to Paulino Wanawilla Unango of the Attorney General's Chambers, Khartoum. Notwithstanding this assistance, the conclusions presented herein are the responsibility of the author alone. This article is based on legislation in force as of 15 December 1985.
Email your librarian or administrator to recommend adding this journal to your organisation's collection.
Full text views reflects the number of PDF downloads, PDFs sent to Google Drive, Dropbox and Kindle and HTML full text views.
Loading metrics...
Abstract views reflect the number of visits to the article landing page.
Loading metrics...
* Views captured on Cambridge Core between September 2016 - 12th June 2018. This data will be updated every 24 hours.
