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In this essay, I will survey recent scholarship on several major issues in the political, social, and economic history of ancient China, from the beginning of the Shang Dynasty to the end of the Han Dynasty. Archaeological aspects will be discussed only when their historical significance requires it, since the archaeological discoveries of recent decades have already been the subject of Professor Kwang-chih Chang's state-of-the-field article in The Journal of Asian Studies.
1 Chang, K. C., “Chinese Archaeology Since 1949.”.JAS. 36: 4 (1977). 623–47.
2 Feuerwerker, Albert, ed., History in Communist China (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1968).
3 Japanese scholars underwent a soul-searching effort during the 1960s to determine their research directions. One of the common cries was the rejection of conventional “historical positivism.” The movement started in the field of studies of modern China; its impact, however, reached the field of early Chinese history as well. See Kamachi, Noriko, “Historical Consciousness and Identity: Debate of Japanese China Specialists over American Research Fund,”.JAS, 34: 4 (1975), 981–95.
4 The problem of periodization is one of the most hotly debated topics. Articles dealing with this topic appeared in two anthologies edited by the Editorial Board of Li-shih yen-chiu: Chung-kuo ti nu-li-chih yü feng-chien-chih fen-ch'i wen-t'i lun-wen-chi (Peking: San-lien, 1956); and Chung-kuo ku-tai-shih fen-ch'i wen-t'i t'ao-lun-chi (Peking: San-lien, 1957).
5 Kuo Mo-jo, “Nu-li-chih shih-tai,” in Chungkuo ti nu-li-chih yü feng-chien-chih fen-ch'i wen-t'i lun-wen-chi; Wai-lu, Hou, Chung-kuo ku-tai she-hui shih (Peking: San-lien, 1949).
6 For instance, Su Shih-tseng points out the heterogeneity of the Hsia-Shang slavery in “Hsiatai ho Shang-tai ti nu-li-chih.” Hsü Hsi-sheng and Chu Pen-yüan explained the heterogeneity by citing its oriental characteristics. Hsü, “Shang-Yin nu-li-chih t'e-cheng ti t'an-t'ao,” and Chu, “Lun Yin-tai sheng-ch'an tsu-liao ti so-yu-chih hsin-shih.” All are included in Chung-kuo ku-taishih fen-ch'i wen-t'i t'ao-lun-chi, pp. 57–82 and 83–125, respectively.
7 The most commonly cited archaeological finding is the evidence of human sacrifice, which the Chinese historians consider evidence of the prevalence of slavery. For instance, Hou-hsüan, Hu, “Chung-kuo nu-li she-hui ti jen-hsün ho jen-chi,” Wen-wu, No. 7 (1974), pp. 74–84; and Wen-wu, No. 8 (1974), pp. 56–67; and Chan-yüeh, Huang, “Wo-kuo ku-tai ti jen-hsün ho jensheng,” K'ao-ku, No. 3 (1974), pp. 153–63. K'ao-ku and K'ao-ku hsüeh-pao are rendered in the Wade-Giles rather than the Pinyin system of romanization.
8 Mo-jo, Kuo, Nu-li-chih shih-tai (Peking: Jen-min, 1954). He recently reasserted the same position in an article published in Hung-ch'i: “Chung-kuo shang-ku-shih fen-ch'i wen-t'i,” (July 1972), pp. 56–62.
9 Ya-nung, Li, Chung-kuo ti nu-li-chih yü feng-chien-chih (Shanghai: Hua-tung jen-min, 1954). See also his Hsi-Chou yü Tung-Chou (Shanghai: Jen-min, 1956) and Chou-chu ti shih-chu-chih yü To-pa-chu ti ch'ien-feng-chien-chih (Shanghai: Jen-min, 1954). In the latter article, “patriarchy” precedes feudalism.
10 Wai-lu, Hou, “Lun Chung-kuo feng-chienchih ti hsin-ch'eng chi ch'i fa-tien-hua,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 8 (1956), pp. 23–45. See also his more fully developed Chung-kuo ku-tai she-hui-shih lun (Peking: Jen-min, 1963).
11 Li-shih yen-chiu Editorial Board, ed., Chungkuo ti nu-li-chih yü feng-chien-chih fen-ch'i wen-t'i lun-wen hsüan-chi (Peking: San-lien, 1955), and Chung-kuo ku-tai-shih fen-ch'i wen-t'i t'ao-lun-chi. For the 1978 conference, see Kuang-ming jih-pao 8 Nov. 1978, p. 2.
12 Chung-mien, Cheng, Hsi-Chou she-hui chih-tu wen-t'i (Shanghai: Hsin-chih-shih, 1956); Lan, T'ang, “Ch'un-ch'iu Chan-kuo shih feng-chien kochu-shih-tai,” Chung-hua wen-shih lun-ts'ung, III (Shanghai: Chung-hua, 1963), 1–32.
13 Shizuka, Shirakawa, “In-dai junsosha to doreisei,” Ritsumeikan Bungaku Jinbunkagaku Kenkyujo, 2 (1952), 1–17.
14 Taketoshi, Sato, “Indai nōgyo keiei ni kansuru ichi mondai,” in Kurihara, Mikami, ed., Chūgoku Kodaishi no shomondai (Tokyo: Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai, 1954); Chiaki, Ishida, “Shū kō,” Kōkotsu-gaku, No. 10 (1964), pp. 53–78.
15 Fu-kuan, Hsü, Chou-Ch'in-Han cheng-chih shehui chieh-kou chih yen-chiu (Hong Kong: New Asia Institute, 1972), pp. 2–13.
16 Eberhard, Wolfram, Conquerors and Rulers: Social Forces in Medieval China (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1965, 2nd and rev. ed.), especially pp. 27–30. For critics of Eberhard's insistence on the ethnic distinctiveness of the Chou people, see Bodde, Derk, “Feudalism in China,” in Coulborn, Rushton, ed., Feudalism in History (Hamden: Archon, 1965), pp. 81–82.
17 See Li's translation of N. D. Fustel de Coulanges's La Cité Antique into Chinese, , Hsi-la lo-ma ku-tai she-hui shih (Shanghai, 1944; rev. ed., Taipei: Chung-hua Wen-hua, 1955). He applies the method to Chinese history in Chung-kuo ku-tai she-hui shih (Taipei: Chung-hua Wen-hua, 1953). For a recent evaluation of Coulanges's contribution, see Wilson, Stephen, “Fustel de Coulanges and the action Françise,” Journal of the History of Ideas, 34 (Jan.-March 1973), 123–34.
18 Shigeshi, Kaizuka, “Chūgoku no kodai kokka,” in Kaizuka Shigeshi chōsaku-shū (Tokyo: Chūo Koronsha, 1976), I, Part 2; Ichisada, Miyazaki, “Chūgoku kodaishi kairon,” in his Ajiashigaisetsu(Tokyo: Gakuseisha, 1973), I, 133–63, and II, 31–72. For the influence of the Naito theory on Miyazaki, see Hisayuki, Miyakawa, “An Outline of the Naito Hypothesis and its Effect on Japanese Studies of China,” Far Eastern Quarterly, 14: 4 (1955), 533–52.
19 Hsu, Cho-yun, Ancient China in Transition (Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1965).
20 Wheatley, Paul, The Pivot of the Four Quarters: A Preliminary Inquiry and Character of the Ancient Chinese City (Chicago: Aldine, 1971).
21 Shigeki, Kaizuka, “Chūgoku kodai tōshikoku no seikaku,” in Sekai kōkogaku taikei (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1958); Matsumaru Michio, “In-shū kokka no kōzō,” in Higashi Ajia sekai no keisei, Vol. IV of Iwanami kōza sekai rekishi (Tokyo, 1970, 1973); Chang, Kwang-chih, Early Chinese Civilization: Anthropological Perspectives (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1976), pp. 47–71).
22 Michiharu, Itō, “Sei-shū jidai no tōshi—sono kōkogakuteki ni mita tojō,” Kenkyu, No. 30 (1963), pp. 25–62; and “In-Shū jidai no tōshi,” Rekishi-Kyoiku, 14: 12 (1966), 22–28. See also his Chūgoku kodai ōchō no keisei (Tokyo: Shobunsha, 1975).
23 Cho-yün, Hsü, “Chou-tai shang-yeh ho tushih ti fa-chan,” Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology (Academia Sinica), 48 (1977), Part 2 309–32.
24 Wright, Arthur F., ed., and Wright, H. M., trans., Balazs, Etienne, Chinese Civilization and Bureaucracy (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1964), pp. 3–33. 129–49, especially p. 31.
25 Creel, H. G., The Origins of Statecraft in China, Vol. I (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1970); see also his “The Beginning of Bureaucracy in China: The Origin of the Hsien,” JAS, 23 (1964), 155–84; “The Fa-chia: Legalists or Administrators,” Studies Presented to Tung Tso-pin on his Sixtyfifth Birthday, Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Extra No. 4 (1961), pp. 607–36; “The Meaning of Hsing-ming,” Studia Serica, Bernhard Karlgren Dedicata (Copenhagen: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, 1959), pp. 199–211; “On the Origin of Wu-wei,” Symposium in Honor of Dr. Li Chi on his Seventieth Birthday (Taipei, Tsing-hua Journal Board, 1965), pp. 105–38; and Shen Puhai: A Chinese Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C. (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1974).
26 Cho-yün, Hsü, “Chan-kuo ti t'ung-chih chikou yü chih-shu,” Bulletin of the College of Arts, National Taiwan University, No. 14 (1965), pp. 205–39.
27 Kan, Lao, “Han-tȧi chün-chih chi ch'i tui-yü chien-tu ti ts'an-cheng,” in University, Taiwan, ed., Fu ku-hsiao-chang Ssu-nien hsien-sheng chi nien lun-wen-chi (Taipei: National Taiwan University, 1952), pp. 29–61; also his “Han-tai ti t'ingchih,” Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology (Academia Sinica), 22 (1950), 29–138; and “Hanch'ao ti hsien-chih,” Annual of Academia Sinica, 1 (1954), 69–81. See the following items by Shu-fan, Yang in Ta-lu tsa-chih: “Liang-Han shang-shu chih-tu chih yen chiu,” 23: 3 (1963), 5–12; “Hantai chün-kuo shou-hsiang ti chüan-che,” 15: 1 (1956), 23–27; “Han-tai hsiang-t'ing chih-tu ti yen-chiu,” 11: 10(1955), 14–17. The works by Tao-chi, Chou, also in Ta-lu-tsa-chih, are: “Hsi-Han chün-ch'üan yü hsiang-ch'üan chih kuan-his,” 11: 12 (1955). 13–17; and “Han-tai tsai-hsiang chikuan,” 19: 11 (1959), 9–15. For Keng-wang, Yen, see Chung-kuo ti-fang hsing-cheng chih-tu shih: Ch'in-Han ti-fang hsing-cheng chih-tu, 2 vols. (Taipei: Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, 1961).
28 Houn, Franklin, “The Civil Service Recruitment Systems of the Han Dynasty,” Tsing-hua Journal of Chinese Studies, NS 1 (1956), 138–64. Crespigny, Rafe de, “The Recruitment System of the Imperial Bureaucracy of the Later Han,” Chung-chi Journal, 6 (1966), 67–78. Tien-yi Tao of the University of Hawaii is now carrying on a project on the same topic.
29 Hsu, Cho-yun, “The Changing Relationship between Local Society and the Central Power in Former Han,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 7: 4 (1965), 358–70. Also see the Chinese version, Cho-yün, Hsu, “Hsi-Han cheng-ch'üan yü she-hui shih-li ti chiao-hu tso-yung,” Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology (Academia Sinica), 35 (1964). See also Kan, Lao, “Lun Han-tai ti yu-hsia,” Wen shih che hsüeh-pao, 1 (1950); and “Han-tai ti hao-ch'iang chi ch'i cheng-chih shang ti kuan-hsi,” Symposium in Honor of Dr. Li Chi on his Seventieth Birthday, pp. 39–5 1. Ying-shih, Yü, “Tung-Han cheng-ch'üan chih chien-li yü shihchu ta-hsing chih kuan-hsi,” Hsing-ya hsüeh-pao, 1: 2 (1956), 209–80.
30 Fa-ken, Chin, “Tung-Han tang-ku jen-wu ti fen-hsi,” Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology (Academia Sinica), 34 (1963), 525–58; and “Wu-pao shou-yüan chi liang-Han ti wupao,” Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology (Academia Sinica), 37 (1965), 201–20.
31 Hsü Fu-kuan, Chou-Ch'in-Han cheng-chih shehui chieh-kou chih yen-chiu.
32 Ch'ü, Tung-tsu, Han Social Structure, ed.Dull, Jack (Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1971).
33 Yü, Ying-shih, Trade and Expansion in Han China (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1967).
34 Tung-kuei, Kuan, “Han-tai chu-li Ch'iangtsu wen-t'i ti chien-t'ao,” Shih-huo yüeh-k'an, NS 2: 3 (1972), 1–26; and “Han-tai ti t'un-t'ien yü k'ai-pien,” Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology (Academia Sinica), 45 (1973), Part 1, 27–88; Dobbs, Jack, History of the Discovery and Exploration of Turkestan (The Hague: Mouton, 1963); Wiens, Herold, Han Expansion in South China (Hamden, Conn: Shoe String Press, 1954).
35 Feuerwerker surveys four of these five topics and discusses one additional historiographical question, the role of imperialism in Chinese history, in Feuerwerker, , ed., History in Communist China (Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1968), pp. 15 ff.
36 Yüeh, Shang, “Hsien-Ch'in sheng-ch'an hsing-t'ai chih t'an-t'ao,” Li-shih yen-chiu, 2 No. 7 (1955) pp. 1–28; and “Ju-ho lien-chieh li-shih jen-wu, shih-chien ho hsien-hsiang,” Chiao-hsüeh yü yen-chiu, No. 4 (1956), pp. 1–10; Chung-lo, Wang, “Kuan-yü Chung-kuo nu-li she-hui ti wa-chieh chi feng-chien kuan-shih ti hsing-ch'eng wen-t'i,” Wen shih che, No. 3 (1956), pp. 25–31; No. 4, pp. 48–59; No. 5, pp. 32–49; Ssu-chih, Wang et al. , “Kuan-yü liang-Han she-hui hsing-chih wen-t'i ti t'an-t'ao,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 1 (1955). pp. 19–46.
37 For instance, Po-tsan, Chien, “Kuan-yü liang-Han ti kuan-ssu nu-li wen-t'i,” Li-shih yenchiu, No. 4 (1954), pp. 1–24.
38 Wai-lu, Hou, “Chung-kuo feng-chien shehui t'u-ti so-yu-chih hsing-shih ti wen-t'i,” Lishih yen-chiu, No. 1 (1954), pp. 17–32.
39 Li-shih yen-chiu, ed., Chung-kuo li-tai t'u-ti chih-tu wen-t'i t'ao-lun-chi (Peking: San-lien, 1957); Department of History, Nankai University, ed., Chung-kuo feng-chien she hut t'u-ti so-yu-chih hsing-shih wen-t'i t'ao-lun chi, 2 vols. (Peking: San-lien, 1962).
40 Ya-nung, Li, “Chung-kuo ti feng-chien lingchu-chih ho ti-chu-chih,” in his Hsin-jan-tsai shihlun chi (Shanghai: Jen-min, 1962), pp. 873–1096.
41 Ch'ang-ch'un, Ho, Han-T'ang-chien feng-chien t'u-ti so-yu-chih hsing-shih yen-chiu (Shanghai: Jenmin, 1964).
42 Wen-lan, Fan, “Shih-lun Chung-kuo tz'u Ch'in-Han ch'i Chung-kuo ch'eng-wei t'ung-i kuo-chia ti yüan-ying,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 3 (1954), pp. 15–26. Responses to Fan's work, as well as the Chinese translation of the essay by Efimov, are included in the collection Li-shih yenchiu, ed., Han min-chu hsing-ch'eng wen-t'i t'ao-lun chi (Peking: San-lien, 1957), pp. 1–16. Efimov's original paper is not available to the author of the present article.
43 These two types are represented in two anthologies. For the former, see Li-shih yen-chiu, ed., Chung-kuo nung-min ch'i-i lun-chi (Peking: San-lien, 1958); for the latter, see Shao-ping, Shih, ed., Chung-kuo feng-chien she-hui nung-min chancheng wen-t'i t'ao-lun-chi (Peking: San-lien, 1957).
44 Hsia, Ch'i, Ch'in-Han nung-min chan-chengshih (Peking: San-lien, 1962); Ho Ch'ang-ch'un, Han-T'ang-chien feng-chien t'u-ti so-yu-chih hsingshih yen-chiu, pp. 6–130; K'ai-liang, Ma, “Kuanyü Kung-yüan i-shih-chi ch'u-ch'i nung-min ch'i-i ti chi-ko wen-t'i, Jen-wen k'o-hsüeh tsa-chih, No. 1 (1958), pp. 39–46; Li Kuang-pi, “Han-tai t'ai-p'ing-tao yü Huang-chün ch'i-i,” Li-shih chiao-hsüeh, No. 6 (1951), pp. 13–21.
45 Jung-kuo, Yang, “San Hung-yang ti chehsüeh ssu-hsiang,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 1 (1974), pp. 50–56; Yün-k'o, Ching, “Po Hsün-k'uang wei ju-chia shuo,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 1 (1975), pp. 29–88; Chung, Shih, “Hsi-Han wang-ch'ao t'ung Liu Pi teng fu-ni shih-li ti t'ou-tseng,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 2 (1975), pp. 68–75; Hsiao, Liang, “Lun Ch'en Sheng Wu Kuang nung-min ta ch'i-i ti li-shih kung-hsün,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 1 (1975). pp. 65–73.
46 The first attack on the Gang of Four's historiography in a historical journal was in Lishih yen-chiu, No. 6 (1976), which was entirely devoted to this purpose. More recent is an article by Kan-ch'uan, Lin re-evaluating Ch'in Shih-huang-ti, “Lun Ch'in-shih-huang,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 4 (1978), pp. 20–33. An article directly related to peasant uprisings in Chinese history, especially those in the Ch'in-Han period, is Chü-ko Chi, “Po Ssu-jen-pang tsai nung-min chan-cheng wen-t'i-shang ti fan-Ma-k'e-ssu chu-i niulun,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 1 (1977), pp. 46–59. For changes in anti-Confucian attitudes, see Ling, Yen, “Kuan-yü K'ung Ch'iu chu Shao-chengmao,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 1 (1978), pp. 63–65; and T'ien-yu, Hsieh and Chia-fan, Wang, “Po Fachia ch'ang-ch'i fan-fu-pi lun,” Li-shi yen-chiu, No. 3 (1978), pp. 35–43.
47 Naonori, Maeda, “Higashi-Ajia ni okeru kodai no Shūmatsu,” Rekishi, 1: 4 (1948), 19–31, also included in Shun, Suzuki and Sadao, Nishijima, Chūgokushi no jidai-kubun (Tokyo: Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai, 1957). For Nishijima's statement, see pp. 191 ff of this same volume.
48 Tatsuo, Masubuchi, Chūgoku kodai no shakai to kokka (Tokyo: Kōbundō, 1960).
49 Sadao, Nishijima, “Chūgoku kodai teikoku seiritsu no ichi kosatsu,” Rekishigaku kenkyū, 141 (1949), 1–15; and his “Kodai kokka no kenryoku kōzō,” Kokka kenryoku no shodankai (Tokyo, 1950).
50 Sadao, Nishijima, Chūgoku kodai teikoku no keisei to kōzō (Tokyo: Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai, 1961).
51 Masubuchi Tatsuo, Chūgoku kodai no shakai to kokka.
52 See the following articles by Mitsuo, Moriya: “Kan no kōso shūdan no sei ni tsuite,” Rekishigaku kenkyū, 158: 9 (1952); “Furō,” Tōyōshi kenkyū, 14: 1–2 (1955); and “Kandai kazoku no keitai ni kansuru sai kosatsu,” Chūgoku kodaishi kenkyū (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kōbunkai, 1960), pp. 327–52.
53 Reiji, Hiranaka, Chūgoku kodai no densei to zeihō (Kyoto: Kyoto Univ. Tōyōshi Kenkyūkai, 1961).
54 Masao, Kimura, Chūgoku kodai teikoku no keisei (Tokyo: Fumeido, 1965). See also Wittfogel, Karl, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1957). In his earlier work Wittfogel traced the origin of Chinese despotism to Ch'in: “Die Theorie der Orientaiischen Gesellschaft,” Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, 7 (1938).
55 Masao, Kimura, “Zen-go Kan kōtai-ki no nōmin hanran,” Tōkyō Kyōiku Daigaku bungakubu shigaku kenkyū, 61 (1967), 1–50; “Ryō-Kan kōtai ki no gōzoku hanran,” Risshō-Shigaku, 3 (1967) 12–41; and “Kōkin no hanran,” Shigaku Kenkyū, 91 (1972).
56 Kiyōkichi, Utsunomiya, Kandai shakaikeizaishi kenkyū (Tokyo: Kōbundō, 1955).
57 Mitsuo, Moriya, Chūgoku kodai no gōzoku to kokka (Kyoto: Kyoto Univ. Tōyōshi Kenkyūkai, 1966).
58 Takashi, Yoshinami, Shin-Kan teikokushi kenkyū (Tokyo: Miraisha, 1978), especially pp. 23 ff. and pp. 365 ff.
59 Higashi Ajia sekai no keisei.
60 K'uan, Yang, Chung-kuo ku-tai yeh-t'ieh chishu ti fa-ming ho fa-chan (Shanghai: Jen-min, 1956); Chuang-yu, Fang, “Chan-kuo i-lai Chungkuo pu-li fa-chan wen-t'i shih-t'an,” K'ao-ku No. 7 (1953); Ch'ang-shu, Chang, Lai-ssu ti chi-yüan chi ch'i fa-chan (Shanghai: Jen-min, 1964); Hsienchou, Liu, Chung-kuo ku-tai nung-yeh chi-chieh fa-ming shih (Peking: K'o-hsüeh, 1963).
61 Nung-shih yen-chiu chi-kan, No. 1 (1959), and No. 2 (1960), passim, especially Yu Yü, “Yu Hsi-chou tao Ch'ien-Han ti keng-tso chih-tu yenko,” Nung-shih yen-chiu chi-kan, 2 (1960), 1–17. Many of the opinions in these papers are incorporated into Kuo-ting's, WanChung-kuo nung-hsüeh shih (Peking: K'o-hsüeh, 1959).
62 Motonosuke, Amano, Chūgoku nōgyōshi kenkyū (Tokyo: Ochanomizu shobo, 1962). See also his “Sai-Shū no nōgyō to sono shakai kōzō,” Matsuyama shōdai ronshu, 7: 1 (1956); and “Chūgoku kodai nōgyō no tenkai—Kahoku nōgyō no keisei katei,” Tōhō gakuhō (Kyoto), 30 (1959). 67–166.
63 Takeshi, Sekino, “Shin rai-shi kō,” Toyō Bunka Kenkyūjo kiyō, 19 (1959), 1–77.
64 Amano Motonosuke, “Seido-sei nōgu kō,” Chūgoku nōgyōshi kenkyū, pp. 687–96.
65 Motonosuke, Amano, “Shū no hohensei to seidensei,” Jinbun kenkyū, 7–8 (1957), 4–14; and Sato Taketoshi, , “In-Shū jidai no zei-sei,” Rekishi kyōiku, 186 (1969), 13–19.
66 Kimura Masao, Chōgoku kodai-teikoku no keisei.
67 Ho, Ping-ti, The Cradle of the East (Hong Kong and Chicago: Hong Kong Chinese Univ. Press and Univ. of Chicago Press, 1976), especially pp. 43–89. For some defects in Ho's presentation, see the reviews by Kwang-chih Chang in Journal of the American Oriental Society and in the Journal of Oriental Studies, Hong Kong, as well as the reviews by Richard Pearson in Science (July 30, 1976); by Hsu, Cho-yun in Geographical Review, 67: 1 (Jan. 1977); by Keightley, David in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 37: 2 (1977), 392, and in Early China, 3 (1977) 55–61; and by Pulleyblank, E. G. in JAS, 35: 4 (August 1977), 715–17. A paper which explicitly refers to Han agriculture is by a geographer: Ballas, Donald J., “Some Notes on Agriculture in Han China,” Professional Geography, 17: 4 (1965), 13–14.
68 The manuscript is prepared as one volume of the Han History Project sponsored by the University of Washington, Seattle, and edited by Dull, Jack. A brief summary entitled “Agricultural Intensification and Marketing Agrarianism in the Han Dynasy” is included in Roy, David T. and Tsien, T. H., eds., Ancient China: Studies in Early Civilization (Hong Kong and Chicago: Hong Kong Chinese Univ. Press and Univ. of Chicago Press, 1979).
69 It is impossible to cite every paper that contains such sections. By way of illustration, in the summary of archaeological discoveries since 1950, Hsia Nai stresses human sacrifice as one of the general features of Shang society. See yen-chiu-so, K'ao-ku, ed., Hsin Chung-kuo ti k'ao-ku shouhou (Peking: Wen-wu, 1961), and “Wu-ch'an chieh-chi wen-hua ta ko-ming chung ti k'ao-ku hsin fa-hsien,” K'ao-Ku, 1 (1972), 29–42. For treatment of this topic using oracle bone inscription materials, see Hou-hsüan, Hu, “Chung-kuo nu-li she-hui ti jen-hsün ho jen-chi,” Wen-wu, No. 7 (1974), pp. 78–84, and No. 8 (1974), pp. 56–72.
70 These sites have been known to English readers. See, for instance, Chang, Kwang-chih, Archaeology of Ancient China (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, rev. ed., 1968), pp. 194–209.
71 yen-chiu-so, K'ao-ku, “Ho-nan Yenr-shih Erh-li-tou tsao-shang kung-tien i-chih fa-chüeh chien-pao,” K'ao-ku, No. 4 (1974), pp. 234–48.
72 wen-hua-kuan, Shih-lou jen-min, “Shan-hsi Shih-lou I-tieh fa-hsien Shang-tai t'ung-ch'i,” K'ao-Ku, No. 4 (1972), pp. 29–30; po-wu-kuan, Ho-pei sheng et al. , “Ho-pei Kao-ch'eng hsien T'ai-hsi ts'un Shang-tai i-chih 1973-nien ti chung-yao fa-hsien,” Wen-wu, No. 8 (1974), pp. 42–49. Nai, Hsia, “Wu-ch'an chieh-chi wen-hua ta ko-ming chung ti k'ao-ku hsin fa-hsien,” K'aoku, No. 1 (1972), pp. 29–42.
73 “Ho-pei Kao-ch'eng hsien T'ai-hsi ts'un Shang-tai i-chih 1973-nien ti chung-yao fahsien”; and Yün-ming, T'ang, “Kao-ch'eng T'aihsi Shang-tai t'ieh-jen t'ung-yüeh wen-t'i ti t'ant'ao,” Wen-wu, No. 3 (1975), pp. 57–59; Chung, Li, “Kuan-yü Kao-ch'eng Shang-tai t'ungyüeh t'ieh-jen ti fen-hsi,” K'ao-ku hsüeh-pao, No. 2 (1976), pp. 17–21; Shih, Yeh, “Kao-ch'eng Shang-tai t'ieh-jen t'ung-yüeh chi ch'i i-i,” Wenwu, No. 11 (1976), pp. 56–59.
74 Lan, T'ang, “Ts'ung Ho-nan Cheng-chou ch'u-t'u ti Shang-tai ch'ien-ch'i ch'ing-t'ung-ch'i t'an-ch'i,” Wen-wu, No. 7 (1973), pp. 5–13.
75 yen-chiu-so, K'ao-ku, Feng-hsi fa-chüeh paokao (Peking: Wen-wu, 1962).
76 Chiang-su sheng wen-wu kuan-li wei-yüan-hui, “Chiang-su Tan-t'u hsien Yen-tun-shanch'u-t'u ti ku-tai ch'ing-t'ung-ch'i,” Wen-wu ts'an-k'ao tzu-liao, No. 5 (1955), pp. 58–62; po-wu-kuan, Je-ho, “Je-ho Ling-yüan hsien hai-tao ying-tzu-ts'un fa-hsien ti ku-tai ch'ing-t'ung-ch'i,” Wen-wu ts'an-k'ao tzu-liao, No. 8 (1955), pp. 16–27; Lan, T'ang, “Hsi-Chou shih-tai tsui-tsao ti i-chien t'ung-ch'i Li-kuei ming-wen chieh-shih,” Wen-wu, No. 8 (1977), pp. 8–9; Sheng-wu, Yü, “Likuei ming-wen k'ao-shih,” Wen-wu, No. 8 (1977), pp. 10–12; Feng-nien, Chung et al. , “Kuan-yü Li-kuei ming-wen k'ao-shih ti t'aolun,” Wen-wu, No. 6 (1978), pp. 77–84; Chung-shu, Hsü, “Hsi-Chou ch'iang-pan ming-wen chien-shih,” K'ao-ku hsüeh-pao, No. 2 (1978), pp. 139–48; Hsüeh-ch'in, Li, “Lun ‘Shih-Ch'iang-pan chi ch'i i-i,'” K'ao-ku hsüeh-pao, No. 2 (1978), pp. 149–58.
77 po-wu-kuan, Shen-hsi sheng et al. , Ch'ing-t'ung-ch'i t'u-shih (Peking: Wen-wu, 1960); Lan, T'ang, “Yang ch'ing-t'ung-ch'i ming-wen lei yenchiu hsi-Chou shih,” Wen-wu, No. 6 (1976), pp. 31–39; and Yüan, Chou, “Chü-po Chiu-wei liang-chia-chu ti hsiao-chang yü Chou-li ti penghuai,” Wen-wu, No. 6 (1976), pp. 45–50.
78 Mo-jo, Kuo, “Ch'u-t'u wen-wu erh-san shih,” Wen-wu, No. 3 (1972), pp. 2–10; Cheng-kang, T'ao and Ko-lin, Wang, “Hou-ma tung-Chou meng-shih i-chih,” Wen-wu, No. 4 (1972), pp. 27–37; Lan, T'ang, “Hou-ma ch'u-t'u Chankuo Chao-Chia-chih-meng tsai-shu hsin-shih,” Wen-wu, No. 8 (1972), pp. 31–35; Te-his, Chu and Hsi-kuei, Ch'iu, “Kuan-yü Hou-ma meng-shu ti chi-tien pu-shih,” Wen-wu, No. 8 (1972), pp. 36–38; Yu-ming, Li, “Wo tui Hou-ma meng-shu ti k'an-fa,” K'ao-ku, No. 3 (1973), pp. 185–91. The complete text is now published by Wen-wu (Peking, 1978).
79 Chün-li, , “Lin-tzu Ch'i-kuo ku-ch'eng k'an-t'an chi-yao,” Wen-wu, No. 5 (1972); and Huo, Chu, “Ts'ung Shan-tung ch'u-t'u ti Ch'i-pi k'an Ch'i-kuo ti shang-yeh ho chiao-t'ung,” Wen-wu, No. 5 (1972), pp. 55–59.
80 Peng-hsing, Hao, “Hsin-cheng Cheng-Han ku-ch'eng fa-hsien i-p'i Chan-kuo t'ung-ping-ch'i,” Wen-wu, No. 10 (1972), pp. 32–40.
81 For metallurgical analysis of iron tools, see Chan-yüeh, Huang, “Chin-nien ch'u-t'u ti Chankuo liang-Han t'ieh-ch'i,” Kao-ku hsüeh-pao, No. 3 (1957), pp. 93–108; Chüeh-ming, Hua et al. , “Chan-kuo liang-Han t'ieh-ch'i ti chin-hsiang-hsüeh k'ao-cha,” Kao-ku hsüeh-pao, No. 1 (1960), pp. 73–89. For comparison of molds, Tzukao, Chang et al. , “Ts'ung Hou-ma t'ao-fan ho Hsin-lung t'ieh-fan k'an Chan-kuo shih-tai ti yeh-chu chishu,” Wen-wu, No. 6 (1973), pp. 62–65. On ancient mining sites, see k'ao-ku-tui, T'ung-lu-shan, “Hu-pei T'ung-lu-shan Ch'un-ch'iu Chan-kuo ku-k'uang-ching i-chih fa-chüeh chien-pao,” Wen-wu, No. 2 (1975), pp. 1–12; wen-hua-chü, Ho-nan, comp., Kung-hsien t'ieh-sheng-kou (Peking: Wen-wu, 1962).
82 K'ao-ku yen-chiu-so, Hsin Chung-kuo ti k'aoku shou-hou, pp. 29–30. Chao-yüeh, Tseng and Huan-chang, Yin, “Shih-lun Hu-Shu wen-hua,” K'aoku hsüeh-pao, No. 4 (1959), pp. 47–58; Nai, Hsia, “Ch'ang-chiang liu-yü k'ao-ku wen-t'i,” K'ao-ku, No. 2 (1960), pp. 1–3; wen-kuan-hui, Che-chiang sheng, “Ho-mu-tu fa-hsien yüan-shih she-hui chung-yao i-chih,” Wen-wu, No. 8 (1976), and comments in the same issue, pp. 6–26; Nai, Hsia et al. , Ch'ang-sha fa-chüeh pao-kao (Peking: K'o-hsüeh, 1957); po-wu-kuan, Hu-nan sheng et al. , Ch'ang-sha Ma-wang-tui i-hao Han-mu (Peking: Wen-wu, 1974). See also Wen-wu, No. 9 (1972), passim; and po-wu-kuan, Hu-nan sheng et al. , “Ch'ang-sha Ma-wang-tui erh-san-hao Han-mu fa-chüeh chien-pao,” Wen-wu, No. 7 (1974), pp. 39–48.
83 For instance, I-yu, Li, “Nei-meng Chao-wuta-meng ch'u-t'u ti t'ung-ch'i tiao-ch'a,” K'ao-ku, No. 6 (1959), pp. 276–77, and “Nei-meng-ku hsi-pu ti-ch'ü ti Hsiung-nu ho Han-tai wen-wu,” Wen-wu ts'an-k'ao tzu-liao, No. 4 (1957), pp. 29–32; Uigur, Hsin-chiang tzu-chih-ch'ü po-wu-kuan k'ao-ku-tui, “Hsin-chiang Ming-feng hsien pei ta-sha-mo chung ti ku-tai i-chih,” K'ao-ku, No. 3 (1961), pp. 119–22; po-wu-kuan, Nei-meng-ku, “Ho-lin-ko-erh fa-hsien i-tso chung-yao ti tungHan pi-hua-mu,” Wen-wu, No. 1 (1974), pp. 8–23.
84 Ssu-ch'uan sheng po-wu-kuan, “Ssu-ch'uan Hsin-fan hsien Shui-kuan-yin i-chih shih-chüeh chien-pao,” K'ao-ku, No. 8 (1959), pp. 404–10; Ssu-ch'uan sheng wen-kuan hui, “Ch'eng-tu Yang-tzu-shan t'u-t'ai i-chih ch'ing-li pao-kao,” K'ao-ku hsüeh-pao, No. 4 (1957), pp. 17–31; po-wu-kuan, Ssu-ch'uan sheng, Ssu-ch'uan kuan-tsang fa-chüeh pao-kao (Peking: Wen-wu, 1960).
85 po-wu-kuan, Yün-nan sheng, Yün-nan Chinning Shih-tsai-shan ku-mu-ch'ün fa-chüeh pao-kao (Peking: Wen-wu, 1959); Han-chi, Feng, “Yünnan Chin-ning ch'u-t'u t'ung-ku yen-chiu,” Wenwu, No. 1 (1974), pp. 51–61.
86 K'ao-ku yen-chiu-so, Hsin Chung-kuo ti K'aoku shou-hou, p. 75. Also Yang Hsi-chang and Ching-han, Li, “Ts'ung k'ao-ku-hsüeh shang k'an Ch'in ho tung-fang ko-kuo ti she-hai ch'a-pieh,” K'ao-ku, No. 5 (1974), pp. 294–98.
87 For a summary of these discoveries, see Hsüeh, Shu, “Wo-kuo ku-tai chu-mu-chien fa-hsien ch'u-t'u ch'ing-k'uang,” Wen-wu, No. 1 (1978), p. 44.
88 po-wu-kuan, Shan-tung, “Shan-tung Lin-i hsi-mu fa-hsien Sun-tzu ping-fa ho Sun Pin pingfa teng chu-chien ti chien-pao,” Wen-wu, No. 2 (1974), pp. 15–26; Fu-i, Lo, “Lin-i Han-chien kai-shu,” Wen-wu, No. 2 (1974), pp. 32–35; Li-po, Chan, “Sun Pin ping-fa ch'an-chien chiehshao,” Wen-wu, No. 3 (1974), pp. 40–46; Han-mu, Yingchüeh-shan cheng-li hsiao-tsu, “Yingchüeh-shan Han-mu ch'u-t'u Sun-tzu ping-fa ch'an-chien shih-wen,” Wen-wu, No. 2 (1974), pp. 11–19; and, by the same author, “Lin-i Yinchüeh-shan Han-mu ch'u-t'u Sun Pin ping-fa shih-wen,” Wen-wu, No. 1 (1975), pp. 1–11.
89 Fu-i, Lo, “Lin-i Han-chien kai-shu”; Ch'en Chiu-chin and Ch'en Mei-tung, “Lin-i ch'u-t'u Han-ch'u ku-li ch'u-t'an,” Wen-wu, No. 3 (1974), pp. 59–68.
90 po-wu-kuan, Hu-nan et al. , “Ch'ang-sha Mawang-tui erh-san-hao Han-mu fa-chüeh chienpao,” Wen-wu, No. 7 (1974), pp. 39–48. Heng, Kao and Hsi-ch'ao, Ch'i, “Shih-t'an Ma-wangtui Han-mu-chung ti po-shu Lao-tzu,” Wen-wu, No. 11 (1974), pp. 1–7; Han-mu, Ma-wang-tui po-shu cheng-li hsiao-tsu, “Ma-wang-tui Hanmu ch'u-t'u Lao-tzu shih-wen,” Wen-wu, No. 11 (1974), pp. 8–20.
91 Han-m, Ma-wang-tui po-shu cheng-li hsiao-tsu, “Ch'ang-sha Ma-wang-tui Han-mu ch'u-t'u Lao-tzu i-pen ch'üan-ch'ien ku-i-shu shih-wen,” Wen-wu, No. 10 (1974), pp. 30–42; Lan, T'ang, “Huang-ti ssu-ching ch'u-t'an,” Wenwu, No. 10 (1974), pp. 48–52; Hsiang, Ling, “Shih-lun Ma-wang-tui Han-mu po-shu I-yin chiu-chu,” Wen-wu, No. 11 (1974), pp. 21–27; Lan, T'ang, “Ma-wang-tui ch'u-t'u Lao-tzu i-pen chüan-ch'ien ku-i-shu ti yen-chiu,” Kao-ku hsüehpao, No. 1 (1975), pp. 7–38.
92 K'uan, Yang, “Ma-wang-tui po-shu Chankuo-ts'e ti shih-liao chia-chih,” Wen-wu, No. 2 (1975), pp. 26–34; Han-mu, Ma-wang-tui po-shu cheng-li hsiao-tsu, “Ma-wang-tui Han-mu ch'u-t'u po-shu Chan-kuo-ts'e shih-wen,” Wen-wu, No. 4 (1975), pp. 14–26; Yung, Ma, “Po-shu pieh-pen Chan-kuo ts'e ko-pien ti nien-tai ho li-shih pei-ching,” Wen-wu, No. 4 (1975), pp. 27–40.
93 Hsiao-kan ti-ch'ü wen-wu k'ao-ku hsün-lien-pan, “Hu-pei Yün-meng Sui-hu ti shih-i-hao Ch'in-mu fa-chüeh chien-pao,” Wen-wu, No. 6 (1976), pp. 1–10; Ch'in-mu, Yün-meng chu-chien cheng-li hsiao-tsu, “Yün-meng Ch'in-chien shih-wen,” Wen-wu, No. 6, (1976), pp. 11–14, No. 7 (1976), pp. 1–11, and No. 8 (1976), pp. 27–37.
94 Ch'ang-chiang liu-yü ti-erh-ch'i wen-wu k'ao-ku kung-tso jen-yüan hsün-lien-pan, “Hupei Chiang-ling Feng-huang-shan hsi-Han-mu fachüeh chien-pao,” Wen-wu, No. 6 (1974), pp. 41–60; Sheng-chang, Huang, “Chiang-ling Fenghuang-shan Han-mu chien-tu chi-ch'i tsai li-shih ti-li yen-chiu shang ti chia-chih,” Wen-wu, No. 6 (1974), pp. 66–77; and I, Hung, “Chiang-ling Feng-huang-shan shih-hao Han-mu chien-tu ch'ut'an,” Wen-wu, No. 6 (1974), pp. 78–84.
95 K'ao-ku-tui, Kan-su Chü-yen, “Chü-yen Han-tai i-chih ti fa-chüeh ho hsin-ch'u-tu ti chien-ts'e wen-wu,” Wen-wu, No. 1 (1978), pp. 1–25; P'ing-fang, Hsü, “Chü-yen k'ao-ku fa chüeh ti hsin shou-huo,” Wen-wu, No. 1 (1978), pp. 26–29; Chü-yen, Kan-su k'ao-ku-tui chien-ts'e cheng-li hsiao-tsu, “Chien-wu san-nien hou-shu-chün so-tse k'ou-en shih shih-wen,” Wen-wu, No. 1 (1978), pp. 30–31.
96 The first report on the Ho-mu-tu discovery consists of five short articles in Wen-wu, No. 8 (1976), pp. 6–26. The more recent report on this early Neolithic culture which had rice cultivation and wooden-structure dwellings is sheng, Che-chiang wen-wu kuan-li wei-yüan-hui and Che-chiang-sheng po-wu-kuan, “Ho-mu-tu i-chih ti-i-ch'i fa-chüeh pao-kao,” K'ao-ku Hsüeh-pao, No. 1 (1978), pp. 39–94; po-wu-kuan, Che-chiang sheng, “Ho-mu-tu i-chih tung-chih-wu i-ts'un ti chien-ting yen-chiu,” K'ao-ku Hsüeh-pao, No. 1 (1978), pp. 95–108.
97 “The Summary of a Symposium on Neolithic Culture on the Lower Reaches of the Yangtze River,” Wen-wu, No. 3 (1978), pp. 35–39; Ping-i, Su, “Lüeh-t'an wo-kuo tung-nan yen-hai tich'ü ti hsing-shih-ch'i shih-tai k'ao ku,” Wen-wu, No. 3 (1978), pp. 40–42; po-wu-yüan, Nan-ching, “Ch'ang-chiang hsia-yu hsing-shih-ch'i shih-tai wen-hua jo-kan wen-t'i ti t'an-hsi,” Wen-wu, No. 4 (1978), pp. 46–57; Yung-k'ang, Mou and Cheng-chin, Wei, “Ma-chia-ping wen-hua ho Liang-chu wen-hua—T'ai-hu liu-yü yüan-shih wen-hua ti feng-ch'i wen-t'i,” Wen-wu, No. 4 (1978), pp. 67–73.
98 Shen-hsi sheng po-wu-kuan Chou-yüan k'aoku-tui, comp., Chou-yüan k'ao-ku t'ung-hsün, Nos. 10 and 11 (1978); Wei-chih, Ssu, “Tsao-Chou ti li-shih ch'u-t'an,” Li-shih yen-chiu, No. 9 (1978).
99 Shirakawa Shizuka, Kinbun tsūshaku (Kōbe: Hakutsuru Bijyutsukan, 1962–1975). Shirakawa, has also compiled a rather brief history of the Shang-Chou period from bronze inscription materials; see his Kinbun no seikai (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1971).
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