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Boodle over the Border: Embezzlement and the Crisis of International Mobility, 1880–1890
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 April 2012
Abstract
Roughly 2,000 American fugitives fled to Canada in the 1880s—mostly clerks, cashiers, and bank tellers charged with embezzlement. This article argues that these “boodlers,” as they were popularly called, were symptomatic of a late-nineteenth-century crisis of mobility. Embezzlement was a function of new kinds of mobility: migration to cities, the rise of an upwardly mobile middle class, the fungibility of greenbacks, and the growth of international transportation networks. The boodlers were some of the earliest white-collar criminals. By focusing on their unexplored story, this article contributes to the growing literature that presents the clerk as an important figure in nineteenth-century labor history. Still, the boodlers also had a more unexpected impact on the evolution of the United States' international borders, both in the popular imagination and in actual surveillance and law enforcement techniques. Through the figure of the boodler, this article examines the links between the growth of capitalism and the development of the United States–Canada border in the late nineteenth century.
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- Essays
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- The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era , Volume 11 , Issue 2 , April 2012 , pp. 151 - 189
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- Copyright © Society for Historians of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2012
References
1 This would be more than $3.8 million in 2010 dollars.
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4 Great Britain granted Canada full autonomy in domestic affairs in 1867 but continued to manage Canada's foreign affairs until 1926.
5 This statistic came from a Canadian secret service agent in 1889, though estimates varied. “Two Thousand Boodlers,” Boston Daily Globe, June 22, 1889, 3. A lesser number fled to Mexico or England, while a handful of Canadians, perhaps one or two hundred, took refuge in the United States. However, given that the United States had ten times Canada's population, the proportion of boodlers was similar.
6 In this paper, I use the term boodler to refer to someone who committed a crime during the 1880s, usually fraudulent or financial in nature, and then fled the country to escape punishment. Most of the boodlers were wanted for embezzlement, but some were wanted on charges of bribery, perjury, and receiving stolen goods.
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45 “Current Topics,” Albany Law Journal, June 14, 1884, 461.
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50 Ibid.
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52 Howells, William Dean, The Quality of Mercy (New York, 1892)Google Scholar; Dreiser, Theodore, Sister Carrie (New York, 1900), chs. 27–29Google Scholar. Examples of serialized and popular fiction about boodlers include: “The Strange Case of Alderman Shekel and Mr. Slide,” Puck, July 7, 1886, 299; Luke Sharp, “Trapped,” Weekly Detroit Free Press, Aug. 28, 1886, 1; “Uncle Sun Up, the Born Detective: Or, Boodle Vs. Bracelets,” Banner Weekly, no. 674 (1891).
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56 “American Boodlers,” Galveston Daily News, Oct. 21, 1888, 1. In these ways, the draft dodgers and war resisters of the 1960s and 1970s resembled the boodlers.
57 “Cartoons and Comments,” Puck, June 17, 1885, 242.
58 Roberts, The Canadian Guide-Book, 3.
59 Interestingly, neither these nor any other editorial cartoons I have located show the boodler crossing the border as he would most likely experience it: in a train. The image of the boodler running across the border may simply be a visual convenience, but I suspect it is influenced by dime novels about outlaws in the United States–Mexico frontier region, who frequently made dramatic escapes across the border by horse or foot.
60 Pletcher, David M., The Diplomacy of Trade and Investment: American Economic Expansion in the Hemisphere, 1865–1900 (Columbia, MO, 1998), 69–76Google Scholar. On the late-nineteenth-century economic integration between the United States and Canada, especially the branch-plant economy, Aitken, Hugh G. J., American Capital and Canadian Resources (Cambridge, MA, 1961)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bliss, Michael, Northern Enterprise: Five Centuries of Canadian Business (Toronto, 1987)Google Scholar; Wilkins, Mira, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise (Cambridge, MA, 1970)Google Scholar.
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67 This line appeared as part of a joke in Puck, Feb. 6, 1889, 389.
68 “A Chinaman's Dark Ways: Chu Fong and a Lot of Money Gone,” New York Tribune, Dec. 22, 1889, 1.
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70 For example, among the places where the Christian Union said the “sin of gambling” could be found was “in the defalcations, embezzlements, violations of trusts, that fill the ranks of the American colony in Canada.” “The Lottery Nuisance,” Christian Union, Apr. 4, 1889, 419.
71 Henry A. Riley, “Notes of Legal Matters of General Interest,” Zion's Herald, July 1, 1885, 202.
72 For example, “Secure in Canada,” originally published in New York World, repr. in Milwaukee Sentinel, Jan. 12, 1885, which profiled twenty-three separate boodlers.
73 New York World article repr. as “Grant, Ward, Fish and Eno,” Raleigh Register, July 23, 1884, 2; “Eno in Quebec,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Feb. 8, 1885, 14.
74 A street gang called the Boodle Gang dominated New York's Lower West side in the 1870s, and Boss Tweed's Tammany Ring was sometimes called the “fraternity of boodle.” By the mid-1880s, however, the terms “boodle” and “boodlers” were associated primarily with the exiles in Canada. Asbury, Herbert, The Gangs of New York (New York, 1927), 219Google Scholar; Lynch, Denis Tilden, “Boss” Tweed: The Story of a Grim Generation (New York, 1927), xxxivGoogle Scholar.
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77 Letter from John Stone Pardee, Louisville, KY, in Century Illustrated Magazine, Mar. 1885, 798.
78 This account of the boodler resembles that of the traditional social bandit, as described in Hobsbawm, Eric, Bandits (1969; New York, 2000)Google Scholar.
79 “What Shall We Do with Embezzlers?” Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, Jan. 14, 1882, 338.
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81 “The Two Boodle Carriers,” New York Times, Apr. 11, 1886, 3. Many train porters at this time were African American, but the article does not say whether this one was. Possibly the porter saw the train as a parallel to the legendary Underground Railroad that helped fugitive slaves escape to Canada.
82 “Current Events,” New York Evangelist, Jan. 7, 1886, 8.
83 American Surety Report, 1887.
84 “Bill Nye in Canada,” Boston Daily Globe, Dec. 8, 1889, 20.
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90 Senate Executive Journal, vol. 26, Jan. 21, 1889, 435; American Surety Report, 1887.
91 “Annual reports of the Pinkerton's National Detective Agency to the American Bankers' Association,” folder 7, box 21, Pinkerton National Detective Agency Papers, Library of Congress.
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95 Quoted in “American Embezzlers: The Flight to Canada of Many Fugitives,” Galveston Daily News, May 12, 1890, 5.
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98 St. Louis Globe-Democrat, Feb. 26, 1887, 4.
99 “Watching at Windsor,” Daily Inter Ocean, July 26, 1887, 1.
100 Ledger Book 1884–1885, box OV 7, Pinkerton's National Detective Agency Papers.
101 For examples of this strategy, see the cases of Joseph H. Wilkins, “A Detective's Sharp Work,” New York Times, Sept. 13, 1885, 14; William E. Jones, “A Canadian Exile,” Rocky Mountain News, Feb. 14, 1889, 1; and Daniel Brown, discussed below.
102 “Over the Line,” Atchison Daily Globe, June 27, 1887, 3. For another example of this strategy, see the case of William P. Spear, “An Embezzler Caught,” New York Times, Feb. 18, 1887, 1; “Decoyed Across the Canada Line,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, Feb. 18, 1887, 3.
103 For examples of this strategy, see the cases of Bill McFadden, “A Daring Detective,” National Police Gazette, June 3, 1882, 13; Abner Benyon, “Bill Nye in Canada,” Boston Daily Globe, Dec. 8, 1889, 20; and William Schreiber, discussed in the next paragraph.
104 “Demands a Princely Fee,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Sept. 23, 1891, 7.
105 “American Embezzlers: The Flight to Canada of Many Fugitives,” Galveston Daily News, May 12, 1890, 5.
106 “Found at Winnipeg,” New York Times, Sept. 8, 1885, 2; “Bold, Bad Detectives: They Kidnap and Bring Back from Canada an Ex-Bank President,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, Sept. 8, 1885, 1; “Caught in Canada: American Detectives in the Role of Kidnappers,” Milwaukee Sentinel, Sept. 9, 1885, 3.
107 “Our Criminals in Canada,” Chicago Daily Tribune, June 1, 1887, 5 (originally published in New York World).
108 F. S. Hussey, the head of the British Columbia Police, also had a good working relationship with P. K. Ahern, who ran the Pinkertons' Seattle office. The Dominion Police merged with the North West Mounted Police to form the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in 1920. Williams, David R., Call in Pinkerton's: American Detectives at Work for Canada (Toronto, 1998), 116–17Google Scholar. The relationship between Sherwood and Pinkerton is documented in A. P. Sherwood Letterbook, 1883–1887, volume 3124, Royal Canadian Mounted Police Dominion Records, RG-18, E, Library and Archives Canada.
109 “Defaulter Brainerd Captured,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Sept. 10, 1885, 4.
110 The Independent, Sept. 17, 1885, 18, called the kidnapping “an outrage, in plain violation of international law,” with supporting quotations from Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont; also “Defaulter Brainerd Captured,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Sept. 10, 1885, 4, which defended the kidnapping.
111 “Notes of Cases,” Albany Law Journal, Sept. 4, 1886, 182.
112 North American, Feb. 4, 1886, 2.
113 Ker v. Illinois, 119 U.S. 146 (1886). Ker v. Illinois paved the way for international abductions in the future by both private detectives and agents of the U.S. government.
114 “M'Garigle in Canada,” Washington Post, Aug. 1, 1887, 1.
115 “Boodlers' Unhappy Lot,” Milwaukee Daily Journal, May 24, 1886, 1.
116 St. Louis Globe-Democrat, Feb. 26, 1887, 4.
117 For more on the idea of the right to free movement in the nineteenth century, Torpey, John, The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship and the State (Cambridge, 2000), esp. ch. 4Google Scholar.
118 Julian Ralph, “The Chinese Leak,” Harper's New Monthly Magazine, Mar. 1891, 515–25.
119 Lee, Erika, At America's Gates: Chinese Immigration During the Exclusion Era, 1882–1943 (Chapel Hill, 2003), esp. ch. 5Google Scholar.
120 “Two Thousand Boodlers,” Boston Daily Globe, June 22, 1889, 3.
121 Richard Chapman Weldon, speech before the Canadian House of Commons, Feb. 27, 1889, in Canada House of Commons, Commons Debates, 1889, 27:346–47.
122 The Liberal Toronto Globe ran a regular column called “Watch the Boodlers,” which reported incidents of bribery and corruption amongst Conservative MPs and listed Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald as the nation's top “boodler in chief.” “The Boodlers in Chief,” Toronto Globe, Feb. 19, 1887, 10.
123 Toronto Globe, Mar. 1, 1889, 4; Montreal Herald, Mar. 6, 1889, 4.
124 “Canada's Exiles Alarmed,” New York Times, Mar. 7, 1889, 2; “Boodlers Combine,” Boston Daily Globe, Mar. 7, 1889, 8; “Boodlers Raise a Fund,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Mar. 9, 1889, 9; “On the Black List: The American Colony in Canada Thrown into a Panic,” Washington Post, Mar. 13, 1889, 4.
125 Canadian House of Commons Debates, Apr. 23, 1889, 1475.
126 “No Longer a Haven for Thieves,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Apr. 24, 1889, 5.
127 “After Fleeing Criminals: Extradition Treaty with England Ratified,” New York Times, Feb. 19, 1890, 1.
128 Extradition case file of Charles Pscherhofer, entry 857, boxes 30–31, RG 59.
129 Chicago Daily Tribune, Apr. 12, 1890, 4.
130 “Gossip of Gotham,” New York Times, Feb. 10, 1895, 16.
131 For a table of extradition statistics through 1893, “Embezzlements of '93,” Chicago Daily Tribune, Dec. 31, 1893, 27. In 1889, the last full year before the new extradition treaty was implemented, reported embezzlements totaled $8,600,000. In 1893, they totaled $19,932,692.
132 “The Embezzlement Business,” Washington Post, Mar. 6, 1892, 4.
133 Annual Message to Congress, Dec. 7, 1903, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1903 (Washington, DC, 1903), xv–xviGoogle Scholar.
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