Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-42gr6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T15:32:51.228Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Effects of race and socioeconomic status on the relative influence of education and literacy on cognitive functioning

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 July 2009

VONETTA M. DOTSON ,
MELISSA H. KITNER-TRIOLO ,
MICHELE K. EVANS  and
ALAN B. ZONDERMAN
VONETTA M. DOTSON*
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Personality and Cognition, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
MELISSA H. KITNER-TRIOLO
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Personality and Cognition, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
MICHELE K. EVANS
Affiliation:
Clinical Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
ALAN B. ZONDERMAN
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Personality and Cognition, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland Clinical Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
*
*Correspondence and reprint requests to: Vonetta M. Dotson, Biomedical Research Center, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Suite 100, Room #04B316, Baltimore, Maryland 21224. E-mail: dotsonv@mail.nih.gov
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Previous research has shown that reading ability is a stronger predictor of cognitive functioning than years of education, particularly for African Americans. The current study was designed to determine whether the relative influence of literacy and education on cognitive abilities varies as a function of race or socioeconomic status (SES). We examined the unique influence of education and reading scores on a range of cognitive tests in low- and higher-SES African Americans and Whites. Literacy significantly predicted scores on all but one cognitive measure in both African American groups and low-SES Whites, while education was not significantly associated with any cognitive measure. In contrast, both education and reading scores predicted performance on many cognitive measures in higher-SES Whites. These findings provide further evidence that reading ability better predicts cognitive functioning than years of education and suggest that disadvantages associated with racial minority status and low SES affect the relative influence of literacy and years of education on cognition. (JINS, 2009, 15, 580–589.)

Keywords

ReadingIncomeDemographicsEthnicityNeuropsychological testingCognition
Type
Research Articles
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 15 , Issue 4 , July 2009 , pp. 580 - 589
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Albert, S.M. & Teresi, J.A. (1999). Reading ability, education, and cognitive status assessment among older adults in Harlem, New York City. American Journal of Public Health, 89(1), 95–97.Google Scholar
Anderson, J.D. (1988). The education of Blacks in the south, 1860-1935. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ardila, A., Ostrosky-Solis, F., Rosselli, M., & Gomez, C. (2000). Age-related cognitive decline during normal aging: The complex effect of education. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15(6), 495–513.Google Scholar
Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., & Rosas, P. (1989). Neuropsychological assessment in illiterates: Visuospatial and memory abilities. Brain and Cognition, 11(2), 147–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, F.M., Johnson, J.T., Velli, S.A., & Wiley, C. (1996). Congruence between education and reading levels of older persons. Psychiatric Services, 47(2), 194–196.Google Scholar
Bright, P., Jaldow, E.L.I., & Kopelman, M.D. (2002). The National Adult Reading Test as a measure of premorbid intelligence: A comparison with estimates derived from demographic variables. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(6), 847–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrd, D.A., Jacobs, D.M., Hilton, H.J., Stern, Y., & Manly, J.J. (2005). Sources of errors on visuoperceptual tasks: Role of education, literacy, and search strategy. Brain and Cognition, 58(3), 251–257.Google Scholar
Crawford, J.R., Deary, I.J., Starr, J., & Whalley, L.J. (2001). The NART as an index of prior intellectual functioning: A retrospective validity study covering a 66-year interval. Psychological Medicine, 31(3), 451–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delis, D.C., Kramer, J.H., Kaplan, E., & Ober, B.A. (1987). California Verbal Learning Test: Adult version. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Deloche, G., Souza, L., Braga, L.W., & Dellatolas, G. (1999). A calculation and number processing battery for clinical application in illiterates and semi-literates. Cortex, 35(4), 503–521.Google Scholar
Department of Health and Human Services. (2003). Annual update of the HHS poverty guidelines. Federal Register, 68(26), 6456–6458.Google Scholar
Dotson, V.M., Kitner-Triolo, M., Evans, M.K., & Zonderman, A.B. (2008). Literacy-based normative data for low socioeconomic status African Americans. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 22(6), 989–1017.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ekstrom, R.B., French, J.W., & Harman, H.H. (1976). Manual for kit of factor referenced cognitive tests. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Farah, M.J., Shera, D.M., Savage, J.H., Betancourt, L., Giannetta, J.M., Brodsky, N.L., Malmud, E.K., & Hurt, H. (2006). Childhood poverty: Specific associations with neurocognitive development. Brain Research, 1110(1), 166–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gurland, B.J., Wilder, D.E., Cross, P., Teresi, J., & Barrett, V.W. (1992). Screening scales for dementia: Toward reconciliation of conflicting cross-cultural findings. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 7(2), 105–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanushek, E.A. (1989). The impact of differential expenditures on school performance. Educational Researcher, 18(4), 45–51.Google Scholar
Hedges, L.V., Laine, R.D., & Greenwald, R. (1994). Does money matter? A meta-analysis of studies of the effects of differential school inputs on student outcomes. Educational Researcher, 23(3), 5–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, A.S., Flicker, L.J., & Lichtenberg, P.A. (2006). Reading ability mediates the relationship between education and executive function tasks. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12(1), 64–71.Google Scholar
Loewenstein, D.A., Arguelles, T., Arguelles, S., & Linn-Fuentes, P. (1994). Potential cultural bias in the neuropsychological assessment of the older adult. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16(4), 623–629.Google Scholar
Manly, J.J., Byrd, D., Touradji, P., Sanchez, D., & Stern, Y. (2004). Literacy and cognitive change among ethnically diverse elders. International Journal of Psychology, 39(1), 47–60.Google Scholar
Manly, J.J., Jacobs, D.M., & Ferraro, F.R. (2002). Future directions in neuropsychological assessment with African Americans. In Ferraro, F.R. (Ed.), Minority and cross-cultural aspects of neuropsychological assessment (pp. 79–96). Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.Google Scholar
Manly, J.J., Jacobs, D.M., Sano, M., Bell, K., Merchant, C.A., Small, S.A., & Stern, Y. (1999). Effect of literacy on neuropsychological test performance in nondemented, education-matched elders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5(3), 191–202.Google Scholar
Manly, J.J., Touradji, P., Tang, M.X., & Stern, Y. (2003). Literacy and memory decline among ethnically diverse elders. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 680–690.Google Scholar
Margo, R.A. (1986). Education achievement in segregated school systems: The effects of “separate-but-equal”. American Economic Review, 76(4), 794–801.Google Scholar
Matute, E., Leal, F., Zarabozo, D., Robles, A., & Cedillo, C. (2000). Does literacy have an effect on stick construction tasks? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6(6), 668–672.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayeaux, E.J. Jr, Davis, T.C., Jackson, R.H., Henry, D., Patton, P., Slay, L., & Sentell, T. (1995). Literacy and self-reported educational levels in relation to Mini-Mental State Examination scores. Family Medicine, 27(10), 658–662.Google ScholarPubMed
Noble, K.G., McCandliss, B.D., & Farah, M.J. (2007). Socioeconomic gradients predict individual differences in neurocognitive abilities. Developmental Science, 10(4), 464–480.Google Scholar
O’Bryant, S.E., Schrimsher, G.W., & O’Jile, J.R. (2005). Discrepancies between self-reported years of education and estimated reading level: Potential implications for neuropsychologists. Applied Neuropsychology, 12(1), 5–11.Google Scholar
Reis, A. & Castro-Caldas, A. (1997). Illiteracy: A cause for biased cognitive development. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 3(5), 444–450.Google Scholar
Reis, A., Guerreiro, M., & Castro-Caldas, A. (1994). Influence of educational level of non brain-damaged subjects on visual naming capacities. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16(6), 939–942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reis, A., Guerreiro, M., & Petersson, K.M. (2003). A sociodemographic and neuropsychological characterization of an illiterate population. Applied Neuropsychology, 10(4), 191–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reitan, R. (1992). Trail Making Test: Manual for administration and scoring. Tucson, AZ: Reitan Neuropsychological Laboratory.Google Scholar
Rosselli, M., Ardila, A., & Rosas, P. (1990). Neuropsychological assessment in illiterates. II. Language and praxic abilities. Brain and Cognition, 12(2), 281–296.Google Scholar
Ryan, E.L., Baird, R., Mindt, M.R., Byrd, D., Monzones, J., & Bank, S.M. (2005). Neuropsychological impairment in racial/ethnic minorities with HIV infection and low literacy levels: Effects of education and reading level in participant characterization. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11(7), 889–898.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schretlen, D., Bobholz, J.H., & Brandt, J. (1996). Development and psychometric properties of the Brief Test of Attention. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 10(1), 80–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sivan, A.B. (1991). The Benton Visual Retention Test: Fifth edition manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Weiss, B.D., Reed, R., Kligman, E.W., & Abyad, A. (1995). Literacy and performance on the Mini-Mental State Examination. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 43(7), 807–810.Google Scholar
Weiss, L.G., Harris, J.G., Prifitera, A., Courville, T., Rolfhus, E., Saklofske, D.H., & Holdnack, J.A. (2006). WISC-IV interpretation in societal context. In Weiss, L.G., Saklofske, D.H., Prifitera, A., & Holdnack, J.A. (Eds.), WISC-IV: Advanced clinical interpretation (pp. 1–58). Burlington, MA: Academic Press/Elsevier.Google Scholar
Weschler, D. (1981). Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. New York: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Whitfield, K.E. & Wiggins, S. (2003). The impact of desegregation on cognition among older African Americans. Journal of African American Psychology, 29, 275–291.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, G.S. (1993). Wide Range Achievement Test-Revision 3. Wilmington, DE: Jastak Association.Google Scholar
Wilson, F.L. (1995). Measuring patients’ ability to read and comprehend: A first step in patient education. Nursing Connections, 8(4), 17–25.Google Scholar
Wilson, F.L. & McLemore, R. (1997). Patient literacy levels: A consideration when designing patient education programs. Rehabilitation Nursing, 22(6), 311–317.Google Scholar
Wilson, F.L., Racine, E., Tekieli, V., & Williams, B. (2003). Literacy, readability and cultural barriers: Critical factors to consider when educating older African Americans about anticoagulation therapy. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 12(2), 275–282.Google Scholar
Wilson, R.S., Bennett, D.A., Beckett, L.A., Morris, M.C., Gilley, D.W., Bienias, J.L., Scherr, P.A., & Evans, D.A. (1999). Cognitive activity in older persons from a geographically defined population. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 54(3), P155–P160.Google Scholar