Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-nwzlb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-27T15:37:35.965Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Executive Impairment Is Associated with Impaired Memory Performance in Working-Aged Stroke Patients

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 March 2016

Katri E.A. Turunen*
Affiliation:
Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland Clinical Neurosciences, Neurology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Finland
Siiri P.K. Laari
Affiliation:
Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland Clinical Neurosciences, Neurology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Finland
Tatu V. Kauranen
Affiliation:
Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland Lapland Central Hospital, Lapland Hospital District, Finland
Satu Mustanoja
Affiliation:
Clinical Neurosciences, Neurology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Finland
Turgut Tatlisumak
Affiliation:
Clinical Neurosciences, Neurology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Finland Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden and Department of Neurology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
Erja Poutiainen
Affiliation:
Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland Clinical Neurosciences, Neurology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Finland Rehabilitation Foundation, Helsinki, Finland
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to:Katri Turunen, Psychology, Institute of Behavioural Sciences, P.O. Box 9, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: katri.turunen@helsinki.fi

Abstract

Objectives: Executive dysfunction is associated with impaired memory performance, but controversies remain about which aspects of memory are involved and how general intelligence influences these connections. We aimed to clarify these connections in stroke patients by comparing various memory measures in patients with and without executive impairment. Methods: Our consecutive cohort included patients with a first-ever ischemic stroke. Neuropsychological assessments were completed 6 months and 2 years after stroke. We classified patients as executively impaired, when at least two of five executive measures were defective at 6 months. At both 6 months and 2 years, we compared list learning of unrelated words, story recall, and recall of geometric figures in patients with and without executive impairment, while controlling for general intelligence. Results: Patients with executive impairment (n=66; 37%) performed worse in list learning (p=.001; partial η2=.058) and immediate recall of a logical passage (p=.010; partial η2=.037) 6 months after stroke compared to executively intact patients (n=113). At the end of the 2-year follow-up period, the patients who were executively impaired at 6 months (n=53; 37%) still performed worse than executively intact patients (n=92) in list learning (p<.001; partial η2=.096), and additionally in delayed recall of the list (p=.006; partial η2=.052) and immediate recall of geometric figures (p=.007; partial η2=.050). Conclusions: In our working-aged stroke patients, executive impairment was common. Executive impairment was associated with memory tasks that provided less inherent structure and required the use of active memory strategies. Clinicians should remember this role of executive dysfunction when interpreting memory performance. (JINS, 2016, 22, 1–10)

Type
Research Articles
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alexander, M.P., Stuss, D., & Gillingham, S. (2009). Impaired list learning is not a general property of frontal lesions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21, 14221434.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. (1996). The fractionation of working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 93, 1346813472.Google Scholar
Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 57, 289300.Google Scholar
Benton, A.L. (1974). Revised visual retention test (4th ed.). New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Brooks, B.L., Weaver, L.E., & Scialfa, C.T. (2006). Does impaired executive functioning differentially impact verbal memory measures in older adults with suspected dementia? The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20, 230242. doi:10.1080/13854040590947461 Google Scholar
Brott, T., Adams, H.P., Olinger, C.P., Marler, J.R., Barsan, W.G., Biller, J., & Hertzberg, V. (1989). Measurements of acute cerebral infarction: A clinical examination scale. Stroke, 20, 864870.Google Scholar
Busch, R.M., Booth, J.E., McBride, A., Vanderploeg, R.D., Curtiss, G., & Duchnick, J.J. (2005). Role of executive functioning in verbal and visual memory. Neuropsychology, 19, 171180.Google Scholar
Christensen, A.-L. (1979). Luria’s neuropsychological investigation: Text (2nd ed.). Copenhagen: Munksgaard.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155159.Google Scholar
Davidson, P.S.R., Troyer, A.K., & Moscovitch, M. (2006). Frontal lobe contributions to recognition and recall: Linking basic research with clinical evaluation and remediation. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12, 210223. doi:10.1017/S1355617706060334 Google Scholar
Duff, K., Schoenberg, M.R., Scott, J.G., & Adams, R.L. (2005). The relationship between executive functioning and verbal and visual learning and memory. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 111122. doi:10.1016/j.acn.2004.03.003 Google Scholar
Gershberg, F.B., & Shimamura, A.P. (1995). Impaired use of organizational strategies in free recall following frontal lobe damage. Neuropsychologia, 13, 13051333.Google Scholar
Goldstein, L.B., Bertels, C., & Davis, J.N. (1989). Interrater reliability of the NIH stroke scale. Archives of Neurology, 46, 660662. doi:10.1001/archneur.1989.00520420080026 Google Scholar
Goodglass, H., & Kaplan, E. (1983). Assessment of aphasia and related disorders (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.Google Scholar
Heyder, K., Suchan, B., & Daum, I. (2004). Cortico-subcortical contributions to executive control. Acta Psychologica, 115, 271289. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.12.010 Google Scholar
Hill, B.D., Alosco, M., Bauer, L., & Tremont, G. (2012). The relation of executive functioning to CVLT-II learning, memory, and process indexes. Applied Neuropsychology, 19, 198206. doi:10.1080/09084282.2011.643960 Google Scholar
Jurado, M.B., & Rosselli, M. (2007). The elusive nature of executive functions: A review of our current understanding. Neuropsychology Review, 17, 213233. doi:10.1007/s11065-007-9040-z Google Scholar
Kane, M.J., & Engle, R.W. (2002). The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: An individual-differences perspective. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9, 637671.Google Scholar
Kauranen, T., Laari, S., Turunen, K., Mustanoja, S., Baumann, P., & Poutiainen, E. (2014). The cognitive burden of stroke emerges even with an intact NIH stroke scale score: A cohort study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, & Psychiatry, 85, 295299. doi:10.1136/jnnp-2013-305585 Google Scholar
Laine, M., Niemi, J., Koivuselkä-Sallinen, P., & Tuomainen, J. (1997). Bostonin diagnostinen afasiatesti [The standardised Finnish version of the Boston diagnostic aphasia examination]. Helsinki: Psykologien Kustannus Oy.Google Scholar
Lezak, M.D., Howieson, D.B., Bigler, E.D., & Tranel, D. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mahoney, F.I., & Barthel, D.W. (1965). Functional evaluation: The Barthel index. Maryland State Medical Journal, 14, 5661.Google Scholar
McNair, D.M., & Lorr, M. (1964). An analysis of mood in neurotics. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69, 620627.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., Friedman, N.P., Emerson, M.J., Witzki, A.H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T.D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Google Scholar
Moeller, T.B., & Reif, E. (2007). Pocket atlas of sectional anatomy. Volume I: Head and neck (3rd ed.). Stuttgart: Thieme.Google Scholar
Nelson, H.E. (1976). A modified card sorting test sensitive to frontal lobe defects. Cortex, 12, 313324.Google Scholar
Nys, G.M.S., Van Zandvoort, M.J.E., De Kort, P.L.M., Jansen, B.P.W., Van Der Worp, H.B., Kappelle, L.J., & De Haan, E.H.F. (2005). Domain-specific cognitive recovery after first-ever stroke: A follow-up study of 111 cases. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11, 795806. doi:10.10170S1355617705050952 Google Scholar
Nys, G.M.S., Van Zandvoort, M.J.E., Van Der Worp, H.B., Kappelle, L.J., & De Haan, E.H.F. (2006). Neuropsychological and neuroanatomical correlates of perseverative responses in subacute stroke. Brain, 129, 21482157. doi:10.1093/brain/awl199 Google Scholar
Poutiainen, E., Kalska, H., Laasonen, M., Närhi, V., & Räsänen, P. (Eds.). (2010). Trail-Making -testi. Käsikirja. [The Trail-Making Test. A Finnish Manual.]. Helsinki: Psykologien Kustannus Oy.Google Scholar
Reitan, R.M. (1958). Validity of the Trail Making test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 8, 271276.Google Scholar
Stroop, J.R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643662.Google Scholar
Stuss, D.T. (2011). Functions of the frontal lobes: Relation to executive functions. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17, 759765. doi:10.1017/S1355617711000695 Google Scholar
Stuss, D.T., & Alexander, M.P. (2000). Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A conceptual view. Psychological Research, 63, 289298.Google Scholar
Temple, R.O., Davis, J.D., Silverman, I., & Tremont, G. (2006). Differential impact of executive function on visual memory tasks. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20, 480490. doi:10.1080/13854040590967540 Google Scholar
Tremont, G., Halpert, S., Javorsky, D.J., & Stern, R.A. (2000). Differential impact of executive dysfunction on verbal list learning and story recall. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 14, 295302.Google Scholar
Tremont, G., Miele, A., Smith, M.M., & Westervelt, H.J. (2010). Comparison of verbal memory impairment rates in mild cognitive impairment. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32, 630636. doi:10.1080/13803390903401328 Google Scholar
Turunen, K.E.A., Kauranen, T.V., Laari, S.P.K., Mustanoja, S.M., Tatlisumak, T., & Poutiainen, E.T. (2013). Cognitive deficits after subcortical infarction are comparable with deficits after cortical infarction. European Journal of Neurology, 20, 286292. doi:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2012.03844.x Google Scholar
Van der Werf, Y.D., Witter, M.P., Uylings, H.B.M., & Jolles, J. (2000). Neuropsychology of infarctions in the thalamus: A review. Neuropsychologia, 38, 613627. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(99)00104-9 Google Scholar
Van Swieten, J., Koudstaal, P., Visser, M., Schouten, H., & Van Gijn, J. (1988). Interobserver agreement for the assessment of handicap in stroke patients. Stroke, 19, 604607.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler Memory Scale - Revised. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1996). WMS-R käsikirja. [The WMS-R. A Finnish manual]. Helsinki: Psykologien Kustannus Oy.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Third edition. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2005). WAIS-III käsikirja [The WAIS-III. A Finnish manual]. Helsinki: Psykologien Kustannus Oy.Google Scholar
Wheeler, M.A., Stuss, D.T., & Tulving, E. (1995). Frontal lobe damage produces episodic memory impairment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 1, 525536. doi:10.1017/S1355617700000655 Google Scholar