Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-5xszh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T16:29:03.730Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Explaining Differences in Episodic Memory Performance among Older African Americans and Whites: The Roles of Factors Related to Cognitive Reserve and Test Bias

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 May 2011

Denise C. Fyffe*
Affiliation:
Spinal Cord Injury/Outcomes & Assessment Research Laboratory, Kessler Foundation Research Center, West Orange, New Jersey and Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, New Jersey Medical School University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey
Shubhabrata Mukherjee
Affiliation:
School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
Lisa L. Barnes
Affiliation:
Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
Jennifer J. Manly
Affiliation:
Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York
David A. Bennett
Affiliation:
Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
Paul K. Crane
Affiliation:
School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to: Denise C. Fyffe, Spinal Cord Injury/Outcomes & Assessment Laboratory, Kessler Foundation Research Center, 1199 Pleasant Valley Way, West Orange, New Jersey 07052. E-mail: dfyffe@kesslerfoundation.org

Abstract

Older African Americans tend to perform poorly in comparison with older Whites on episodic memory tests. Observed group differences may reflect some combination of biological differences, measurement bias, and other confounding factors that differ across groups. Cognitive reserve refers to the hypothesis that factors, such as years of education, cognitive activity, and socioeconomic status, promote brain resilience in the face of pathological threats to brain integrity in late life. Educational quality, measured by reading test performance, has been postulated as an important aspect of cognitive reserve. Previous studies have not concurrently evaluated test bias and other explanations for observed differences between older African Americans and Whites. We combined data from two studies to address this question. We analyzed data from 273 African American and 720 White older adults. We assessed DIF using an item response theory/ordinal logistic regression approach. DIF and factors associated with cognitive reserve did not explain the relationship between race, and age- and sex-adjusted episodic memory test performance. However, reading level did explain this relationship. The results reinforce the importance of considering education quality, as measured by reading level, when assessing cognition among diverse older adults. (JINS, 2011, 17, 625–638)

Type
Special Series
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Albert, M., Smith, L.A., Scherr, P.A., Taylor, J.O., Evans, D.A., Funkenstein, H.H. (1991). Use of brief cognitive tests to identify individuals in the community with clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease. The International Journal of Neuroscience, 57(3–4), 167178. Retrieved from PM:1938160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arvanitakis, Z., Bennett, D.A., Wilson, R.S., Barnes, L.L. (2010). Diabetes and cognitive systems in older black and white persons. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 24(1), 3742. doi:10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181a6bed5 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:19568148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, L.L., Wilson, R.S., de Leon, C.F., Bennett, D.A. (2006). The relation of lifetime cognitive activity and lifetime access to resources to late-life cognitive function in older African Americans. Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. Section B, Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 13(3–4), 516528. doi:K8005180774554M6 [pii]; 10.1080/138255890969519 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:16887787.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bennett, D.A., Schneider, J.A., Buchman, A.S., Mendes de, L.C., Bienias, J.L., Wilson, R.S. (2005). The Rush Memory and Aging Project: Study design and baseline characteristics of the study cohort. Neuroepidemiology, 25(4), 163175. doi:NED2005025004163 [pii]; 10.1159/000087446 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:16103727.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boone, K.B., Victor, T.L., Wen, J., Razani, J., Ponton, M. (2007). The association between neuropsychological scores and ethnicity, language, and acculturation variables in a large patient population. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 355365. doi:S0887-6177(07)00017-0 [pii]; 10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.010 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:17320344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brickman, A.M., Cabo, R., Manly, J.J. (2006). Ethical issues in cross-cultural neuropsychology. Applied Neuropsychology, 13(2), 91100. doi:10.1207/s15324826an1302_4 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:17009882.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brunner, E.J. (2005). Social and biological determinants of cognitive aging. Neurobiology of Aging, 26(Suppl. 1), 1720. doi:S0197-4580(05)00299-X [pii]; 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.09.024 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:16257477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Camilli, G., Shepard, L.A. (1994). Methods for identifying biased test items. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Cooper, J.A., Sagar, H.J. (1993). Incidental and intentional recall in Parkinson's disease: An account based on diminished attentional resources. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 15(5), 713731. Retrieved from PM:8276931.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cosentino, S., Manly, J., Mungas, D. (2007). Do reading tests measure the same construct in multiethnic and multilingual older persons? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(2), 228236. doi:S1355617707070257 [pii]; 10.1017/S1355617707070257 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:17286880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crane, P.K., Gibbons, L.E., Jolley, L., van Belle, G. (2006). Differential item functioning analysis with ordinal logistic regression techniques. DIFdetect and difwithpar. Med Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S115S123. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245183.28384.ed [doi]; 00005650-200611001-00017 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:17060818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crane, P.K., Gibbons, L.E., Narasimhalu, K., Lai, J.S., Cella, D. (2007). Rapid detection of differential item functioning in assessments of health-related quality of life: The functional assessment of cancer therapy. Quality of Life Research, 16(1), 101114. doi:10.1007/s11136-006-0035-7 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:17111233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crane, P.K., Gibbons, L.E., Ocepek-Welikson, K., Cook, K., Cella, D., Narasimhalu, K., Teresi, J.A. (2007). A comparison of three sets of criteria for determining the presence of differential item functioning using ordinal logistic regression. Quality of Life Research, 16(Suppl. 1), 6984. doi:10.1007/s11136-007-9185-5 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:17554640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crane, P.K., Narasimhalu, K., Gibbons, L.E., Pedraza, O., Mehta, K.M., Tang, Y., Mungas, D.M. (2008). Composite scores for executive function items: Demographic heterogeneity and relationships with quantitative magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(5), 746759. doi:S1355617708081162 [pii]; 10.1017/S1355617708081162 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:18764970.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crane, P.K., van Belle, G., Larson, E.B. (2004). Test bias in a cognitive test: Differential item functioning in the CASI. Statistics in Medicine, 23(2), 241256. doi:10.1002/sim.1713 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:14716726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dilworth-Anderson, P., Hendrie, H.C., Manly, J.J., Khachaturian, A.S., Fazio, S. (2008). Diagnosis and assessment of Alzheimer's disease in diverse populations. Alzheimers & Dementia, 4(4), 305309. doi:S1552-5260(08)00077-0 [pii];10.1016/j.jalz.2008.03.001 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:18631983.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dorans, N.J., Kulick, E. (2006). Differential item functioning on the Mini-Mental State Examination. An application of the Mantel-Haenszel and standardization procedures. Medical Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S107S114. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245182.36914.4a [doi]; 00005650-200611001-00016 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:17060817.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dotson, V.M., Kitner-Triolo, M.H., Evans, M.K., Zonderman, A.B. (2009). Effects of race and socioeconomic status on the relative influence of education and literacy on cognitive functioning. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(4), 580589. doi:S1355617709090821 [pii]; 10.1017/S1355617709090821 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:19573276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Everson-Rose, S.A., Mendes de Leon, C.F., Bienias, J.L., Wilson, R.S., Evans, D.A. (2003). Early life conditions and cognitive functioning in later life. American Journal of Epidemiology, 158(11), 10831089. Retrieved from PM:14630604.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fillenbaum, G.G., Peterson, B., Welsh-Bohmer, K.A., Kukull, W.A., Heyman, A. (1998). Progression of Alzheimer's disease in black and white patients: The CERAD experience, part XVI. Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease. Neurology, 51(1), 154158. Retrieved from PM:9674795.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flaugher, R.L. (1978). The many definitions of test bias. American Psychologist, 33(7), 671679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gasquoine, P.G. (2009). Race-norming of neuropsychological tests. Neuropsychology Review, 19(2), 250262. doi:10.1007/s11065-009-9090-5 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:19294515.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbons, L.E., McCurry, S., Rhoads, K., Masaki, K., White, L., Borenstein, A.R., Crane, P.C. (2009). Japanese-English language equivalence of the Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument among Japanese-Americans. International Psychogeriatrics, 21(1), 129137doi:S1041610208007862 [pii]; 10.1017/S1041610208007862 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:18947456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gurland, B.J., Wilder, D.E., Lantigua, R., Stern, Y., Chen, J., Killeffer, E.H., Mayeux, R. (1999). Rates of dementia in three ethnoracial groups. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 14(6), 481493. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199906)14:6<481::AID-GPS959>3.0.CO;2-5 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:10398359.3.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnstone, B., Callahan, C.D., Kapila, C.J., Bouman, D.E. (1996). The comparability of the WRAT-R reading test and NAART as estimates of premorbid intelligence in neurologically impaired patients. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 11(6), 513519. doi:0887-6177(96)82330-4 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:14588456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R.N. (2003). Racial bias in the assessment of cognitive functioning of older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 7(2), 83102. doi:10.10801360786031000045872 [doi]; 6NQP8W6NLFX55HFV [pii]. Retrieved from PM:12745387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R.N. (2006). Identification of measurement differences between English and Spanish language versions of the Mini-Mental State Examination. Detecting differential item functioning using MIMIC modeling. Medical Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S124S133. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245250.50114.0f [doi]; 00005650-200611001-00018 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:17060819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R.N., Fong, T.G., Metzger, E., Tulebaev, S., Yang, F.M., Alsop, D.C., Inouye, S.K. (2010). Aging, brain disease, and reserve: Implications for delirium. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(2), 117127. doi:10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181b972e8 [doi]; 00019442-201002000-00004 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:20104068.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, G.A., Turrell, G., Lynch, J.W., Everson, S.A., Helkala, E.L., Salonen, J.T. (2001). Childhood socioeconomic position and cognitive function in adulthood. Internataional Journal of Epidemiology, 30(2), 256263. Retrieved from PM:11369724.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kit, K.A., Tuokko, H.A., Mateer, C.A. (2008). A review of the stereotype threat literature and its application in a neurological population. Neuropsychology Review, 18(2), 132148. doi:10.1007/s11065-008-9059-9 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:18415682.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, D.A., Arguelles, T., Arguelles, S., Linn-Fuentes, P. (1994). Potential cultural bias in the neuropsychological assessment of the older adult. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16(4), 623629. Retrieved from PM:7962363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luo, D.L., Chen, G., Zen, F., Murray, B. (2010). Modeling work memory tasks on the item level. Intelligence, 38(1), 6682. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.07.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lord, F.M., Novick, M.R. (1968). Statistical theories of mental test scores. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Manly, J.J. (2008). Critical issues in cultural neuropsychology: Profit from diversity. Neuropsychology Review, 18(3), 179183. doi:10.1007/s11065-008-9068-8 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:18814033.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J.J., Byrd, D.A., Touradji, P., Stern, Y. (2004). Acculturation, reading level, and neuropsychological test performance among African American elders. Applied Neuropsychology, 11(1), 3746. doi:10.1207/s15324826an1101_5 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:15471745.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J.J., Jacobs, D.M., Sano, M., Bell, K., Merchant, C.A., Small, S.A., Stern, Y. (1998). Cognitive test performance among nondemented elderly African Americans and whites. Neurology, 50(5), 12381245. Retrieved from PM:9595969.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J.J., Jacobs, D.M., Touradji, P., Small, S.A., Stern, Y. (2002). Reading level attenuates differences in neuropsychological test performance between African American and White elders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8(3), 341348. Retrieved from PM:11939693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J.J., Schupf, N., Tang, M.X., Stern, Y. (2005). Cognitive decline and literacy among ethnically diverse elders. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 18(4), 213217. doi:18/4/213 [pii]; 10.1177/0891988705281868 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:16306242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J.J., Touradji, P., Tang, M.X., Stern, Y. (2003). Literacy and memory decline among ethnically diverse elders. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 680690. Retrieved from PM:12815505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masel, M.C., Peek, M.K. (2009). Ethnic differences in cognitive function over time. Annals of Epidemiology, 19(11), 778783. doi:S1047-2797(09)00175-6 [pii]; 10.1016/j.annepidem.2009.06.008 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:19656690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, R.P. (1999). Test theory: A unified treatment. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
McDougall, G.J. Jr., Vaughan, P.W., Acee, T.W., Becker, H. (2007). Memory performance and mild cognitive impairment in Black and White community elders. Ethnicity & Disease, 17(2), 381388. Retrieved from PM:17682374.Google ScholarPubMed
McKhann, G., Drachman, D., Folstein, M., Katzman, R., Price, D., Stadlan, E.M. (1984). Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: Report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease. Neurology, 34(7), 939944. Retrieved from PM:6610841.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millsap, R.E., Everson, H.T. (1993). Statistical approaches for assessing measurement bias. Applied Psychological Measurement, 17(4), 297334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morales, L.S., Flowers, C., Gutierrez, P., Kleinman, M., Teresi, J.A. (2006). Item and scale differential functioning of the Mini-Mental State Exam assessed using the Differential Item and Test Functioning (DFIT) Framework. Medical Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S143S151. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245141.70946.29 [doi]; 00005650-200611001-00020 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:17060821.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, J.C., Heyman, A., Mohs, R.C., Hughes, J.P., van Belle, G., Fillenbaum, G., … the CERAD Investigators (1989). The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD). Part I. Clinical and neuropsychological assessment of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology, 39(9), 11591165. Retrieved from PM:2771064.Google Scholar
Mungas, D., Reed, B.R., Farias, S.T., DeCarli, C. (2009). Age and education effects on relationships of cognitive test scores with brain structure in demographically diverse older persons. Psychology and Aging, 24(1), 116128. doi:2009-03151-003 [pii]; 10.1037/a0013421 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:19290743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muraki, E., Bock, R.D. (2003). PARSCALE 4: IRT item analysis and test scoring for rating-scale data [computer program]. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software.Google Scholar
Nelson, H.E. (1982). The National Adult Reading Test (NART): Test Manual. Windsor, UK: NFER Nelson.Google Scholar
Parker, C., Philp, I. (2004). Screening for cognitive impairment among older people in black and minority ethnic groups. Age and Ageing, 33(5), 447452. doi:10.1093/ageing/afh135 [doi]; afh135 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:15217776.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pedraza, O., Graff-Radford, N.R., Smith, G.E., Ivnik, R.J., Willis, F.B., Petersen, R.C., Lucas, J.A. (2009). Differential item functioning of the Boston Naming Test in cognitively normal African American and Caucasian older adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(5), 758768. doi:S1355617709990361 [pii]; 10.1017/S1355617709990361 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:19570311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pedraza, O., Mungas, D. (2008). Measurement in cross-cultural neuropsychology. Neuropsychology Review, 18(3), 184193. doi:10.1007/s11065-008-9067-9 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:18814034.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramirez, M., Teresi, J.A., Holmes, D., Gurland, B., Lantigua, R. (2006). Differential item functioning (DIF) and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Overview, sample, and issues of translation. Medical Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S95S106. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245181.96133.db [doi]; 00005650-200611001-00015 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:17060840.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, K., Liner, J., Heaton, R. (2009). Neuropsychological assessment of HIV-infected populations in international settings. Neuropsychology Review, 19(2), 232249. doi:10.1007/s11065-009-9096-z [doi]. Retrieved from PM:19455425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, M.A., Plassman, B.L., Kabeto, M., Fisher, G.G., McArdle, J.J., Llewellyn, D.J., Langa, K.M. (2009). Parental education and late-life dementia in the United States. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 22(1), 7180. doi:0891988708328220 [pii]; 10.1177/0891988708328220 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:19073840.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosselli, M., Ardila, A. (2003). The impact of culture and education on non-verbal neuropsychological measurements: A critical review. Brain and Cognition, 52(3), 326333. doi:S0278262603001702 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:12907177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samejima, F. (1969). Estimation of latent ability using a response pattern of graded scores. Psychometrika Monograph, 17.Google Scholar
Scarmeas, N., Stern, Y. (2003). Cognitive reserve and lifestyle. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 625633. Retrieved from PM:12815500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, B.S., Glass, T.A., Bolla, K.I., Stewart, W.F., Glass, G., Rasmussen, M., Bandeen-Roche, K. (2004). Disparities in cognitive functioning by race/ethnicity in the Baltimore Memory Study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 112(3), 314320. Retrieved from PM:14998746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scruggs, T.E., Lifson, S.A. (1985). Current conceptions of test-wiseness: Myths and realities. School Psychology Review, 14(3), 339350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh-Manoux, A., Richards, M., Marmot, M. (2005). Socioeconomic position across the lifecourse: How does it relate to cognitive function in mid-life? Annals of Epidemiology, 15(8), 572578. doi:S1047-2797(04)00323-0 [pii]; 10.1016/j.annepidem.2004.10.007 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:16118001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2006). Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 20(2), 112117. doi:10.1097/01.wad.0000213815.20177.19 [doi]; 00002093-200604000-00006 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:16772747.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2009). Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia, 47(10), 20152028. doi:S0028-3932(09)00123-7 [pii]; 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:19467352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y., Albert, S., Tang, M.X., Tsai, W.Y. (1999). Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: Cognitive reserve? Neurology, 53(9), 19421947. Retrieved from PM:10599762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y., Gurland, B., Tatemichi, T.K., Tang, M.X., Wilder, D., Mayeux, R. (1994). Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer's disease. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 271(13), 10041010. Retrieved from PM:8139057.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stricker, L.J., Emmerich, W. (1999). Possible determinants of differential item functioning: Familiarity, interest, and emotional reaction. Journal of Educational Measurement, 36(4), 347366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teng, E.L., Manly, J.J. (2005). Neuropsychological testing: Helpful or harmful? Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 19(4), 267271. doi:00002093-200510000-00016 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:16327357.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teresi, J.A. (2006). Different approaches to differential item functioning in health applications. Advantages, disadvantages and some neglected topics. Medical Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S152S170. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245142.74628.ab [doi]; 00005650-200611001-00021 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:17060822.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teresi, J.A., Golden, R.R., Cross, P., Gurland, B., Kleinman, M., Wilder, D. (1995). Item bias in cognitive screening measures: Comparisons of elderly white, Afro-American, Hispanic and high and low education subgroups. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 48(4), 473483. doi:0895-4356(94)00159-N [pii]. Retrieved from PM:7722601.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teresi, J.A., Holmes, D., Ramirez, M., Gurland, B.J., Lantigua, R. (2001). Performance of cognitive tests among different racial/ethnic and education groups: Findings of differential item functioning and possible bias. Journal of Mental Health and Aging, 7(1), 7990.Google Scholar
Teresi, J.A., Kleinman, M., Ocepek-Welikson, K. (2000). Modern psychometric methods for detection of differential item functioning: Application to cognitive assessment measures. Statistics in Medicine, 19(11–12), 16511683. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0258(20000615/30)19:11/12<1651::AIDSIM453>3.0.CO;2-H [pii]. Retrieved from PM:10844726.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teresi, J.A., Stewart, A.L., Morales, L.S., Stahl, S.M. (2006). Measurement in a multi-ethnic society. Overview to the special issue. Medical Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S3S4. doi:10.1097/01.mlr.0000245437.46695.4a [doi]; 00005650-200611001-00003 [pii]. Retrieved from PM:17060831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thissen, D., Steinberg, L., Wainer, H. (1993). Detection of differential item functioning using the parameters of item response models. In Holland, P.W., Wainer, H. (Eds.), Differential item functioning (pp. 67113). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Tuokko, H.A., Chou, P.H., Bowden, S.C., Simard, M., Ska, B., Crossley, M. (2009). Partial measurement equivalence of French and English versions of the Canadian Study of Health and Aging neuropsychological battery. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(3), 416425. doi:S1355617709090602 [pii]; 10.1017/S1355617709090602 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:19402928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
United States Census Bureau. (2010). Income: Historical income tables - families. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/histinc/f07ar.htmlGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler Memory Scale - Revised Manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Weiner, M.F. (2008). Perspective on race and ethnicity in Alzheimer's disease research. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 4(4), 233238. doi:S1552-5260(07)00635-8 [pii]; 10.1016/j.jalz.2007.10.016 [doi]. Retrieved from PM:18631972.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitfield, K.E. (2002). Challenges in cognitive assessment of African Americans in research on Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 16(Suppl 2), S80S81. Retrieved from PM:12351919.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitfield, K.E., Fillenbaum, G.G., Pieper, C., Albert, M.S., Berkman, L.F., Blazer, D.G., Seeman, T. (2000). The effect of race and health-related factors on naming and memory. The MacArthur Studies of Successful Aging. Journal of Aging and Health, 12(1), 6989. Retrieved from PM:10848126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkinson, G.S. (1993). Wide Range Achievement Test 3. Wilmington, DE: Wide Range, Inc.Google Scholar
Wilson, R., Barnes, L., Bennett, D. (2003). Assessment of lifetime participation in cognitively stimulating activities. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 634642. Retrieved from PM:12815501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, R.S., Barnes, L.L., Krueger, K.R., Hoganson, G., Bienias, J.L., Bennett, D.A. (2005). Early and late life cognitive activity and cognitive systems in old age. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11(4), 400407. Retrieved from PM:16209420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, R.S., Beckett, L.A., Barnes, L.L., Schneider, J.A., Bach, J., Evans, D.A., Bennett, D.A. (2002). Individual differences in rates of change in cognitive abilities of older persons. Psychology and Aging, 17(2), 179193. Retrieved from PM:12061405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zsembik, B.A., Peek, M.K. (2001). Race differences in cognitive functioning among older adults. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 56(5), S266S274. Retrieved from PM:11522808.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed