Odontocymbiola magellanica is a neogastropod very common in Patagonian shallow waters. It feeds exclusively on molluscs inhabiting the same benthic community. Field studies showed that prey preferences are live gastropods (54%) and bivalves (46%). When no living prey are available they change their trophic behaviour to carrion or cannibalism. Feeding mechanisms observations showed that prey are not asphyxiated by the snail's foot as suggested before for the Volutidae family; they are narcotized by saliva introduced in a cavity made by the foot where prey are immobilized. Saliva is produced by the salivary (SG) and accessory salivary glands (AG) and has a pH around 10, relaxing prey muscles, which are consumed alive. Secretions from AG and aqueous extracts of SG and AG were mainly composed of proteins and glycoproteins, though SDS-PAGE gels revealed that salivary proteins were richer in higher molecular weight bands. Fractionation of secretions from AG on Bio-Gel P-100 yielded only one peak. SDS-PAGE showed that it consisted of only one band (MW 51.3 kDa). Microanalysis of cations showed a higher concentration of calcium and magnesium in the accessory salivary gland. Hypotheses of function of different glands are given in relation to feeding behaviour and anatomy of O. magellanica.

This study constitutes a preliminary assessment of the abundance and species richness of sponges living on the brown seaweed Sargassum spp. from the southern Gulf of California (Mexico). The diversity and abundance of sponges associated with Sargassum was investigated from November 2006 to November 2007. In addition, it was examined whether temporal variations in the abundance of associations were influenced by changes in size and density of Sargassum as well as environmental factors such as water temperature and salinity. Twelve sponge species (4 Haplosclerida, 3 Poecilosclerida, 4 Dictyoceratida and 1 Clathrinida) were found growing epiphytically on the lower portions of Sargassum plants and the most frequent species were Callyspongia californica and Haliclona turquoisia (38% and 27%, respectively). The abundance of associations showed significant temporal and spatial variations, being higher from June to November (post Sargassum growth period), at depths from 0.5–2.5 m. The number of sponge species m−2 (both epiphytic and non-epiphytic) inside the seaweed bed was 4.8 species m−2, while outside it, the absence of hard substrate for attachment severely restricted the number of sponges. These results suggest that Sargassum provide substratum and habitat for the sponge community from this region, and that their seasonal growth patterns may influence the abundance and diversity of the associations.

Age, growth and cost of reproduction were examined for the small near-shore loliginid squid Loliolus noctiluca in Tasmanian waters, near the southern limit of its distribution. The effects of several factors on hatch size were also evaluated by comparing the statolith natal ring size (NR) from individuals collected in different locations, seasons and years. The life cycle of L. noctiluca was less than six months. July-hatched females grew faster than their May-hatched counterparts, indicating a faster growth in winter-hatched compared with autumn-hatched individuals. There was considerable variation in NRs as function of location, season, year and sex, with females displaying NRs considerably larger than males in any location and year. Immature and maturing females displayed poorer body condition than mature counterparts, suggesting that gonad growth does not affect the mantle or fin growth. A good condition was maintained also in spent individuals indicating that L. noctiluca continued to invest in somatic organs throughout the spawning period. A reproductive strategy closer to ‘multiple spawning’, than to ‘single spawning’ was proposed for this species. Loliolus noctiluca was used as a model to explore the possible effects of climate change on near-shore loliginid populations.

Ontogenetic shifts in habitat use and diet are ubiquitous in nature and usually have profound consequences for the ecology and evolution of the species. In the case of species with strong interactions within their communities, such as keystone predators, understanding this kind of size-related change is critical to understand variation and connectivity among spatially distinct habitats of coastal communities. Yet the ecology of early life stages of marine benthic invertebrates, particularly asteroids, is poorly understood. Here we describe the results of surveys to characterize the habitat and quantify the abundance and diet of recruits of the sun star Heliaster helianthus, a keystone predator at rocky intertidal sites in central Chile. Our results support the existence of size-related, ontogenetic changes in habitat use and diet of this species. Recruits occupy boulders and crevices in the high or mid-high intertidal zones of wave-protected habitats and as they grow they move down towards lower tidal levels. Adults are characteristically found in the low intertidal zone of wave exposed and semi-exposed habitats. These changes in habitat use are accompanied by changes in diet composition and particularly by a broadening of the prey species incorporated in the diet. Since early stages of Heliaster appear to be most sensitive to predation and abiotic stress and since adults are such important predators in wave exposed rocky shores, knowledge of the basic ecology of early stages of this species is critical to fully understand the dynamics of intertidal communities.

Sponges are rare in extreme environments, and very little is known about their adaptations to such settings. Evidence from two species in a marine-derived midwater stratified crater lake on Satonda Island (Sumbawa, Indonesia) suggests their production of gemmules (resting bodies), a rare trait in marine sponges but common in freshwater forms, may be a survival mechanism in the lake's harsh environment. With its epilimnion hydrochemistry—characterized by changing alkalinity, salinity, and O2 levels over the region's wet and dry seasons—the lake sustains only a few marine macroscopic organisms, among them the suberitid sponges Protosuberites lacustris comb. nov. and Suberites sp. (Hadromerida: Suberitida). Both species belong to the same group as sponges reported from other marine-derived lakes with strongly varying and extreme environmental (especially chemical) parameters. The morphological characters, taxonomic position, ecological adaptations, environmental conditions, and biota associated with the sponges in this ecologically unique site are presented here.

Killer whales Orcinus orca are considered to be relatively uncommon in tropical waters. Few sightings have been reported from the west coast of Africa due to a paucity of survey coverage. We present data on 32 killer sightings from tropical waters off Angola (N = 18), Gabon (N = 7), São Tomé (N = 6) and Cameroon (N = 1), comprising a combination of dedicated survey sightings (N = 21) and reliable anecdotal records (n = 11). Killer whales were reported from coastal waters, the shelf edge and deep, oceanic areas. Sightings indicate a probable year-round occurrence of killer whales within the region. Mean group size was 5.6 animals. There was no difference in group size between sightings in waters >200 m deep and those on the continental shelf. No photo-identification matches were found between Angola, Gabon and São Tomé. Re-sightings of two individuals occurred annually in São Tomé during 2002–2004. Killer whales had external appearance consistent with the Type A nominate species form. Antagonistic encounters were recorded between killer whales and humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae off Angola, Gabon and Cameroon, and with sperm whales Physeter macrocephalus off Angola. Predation on ocean sunfish Mola mola was recorded in São Tomé, and possible predation on sharks was recorded twice in Gabon.

The diatom, Phaeodactylum tricornutum is a common inhabitant of inshore waters and can exist in different morphotypes that are thought to be adapted for survival in different habitats. Despite this diatom being widely used for physiological and genetic studies of microalgae, little is known about biochemical or physiological differences between the cell morphotypes. The present study was aimed at comparing differences in the antibacterial properties of the fusiform and oval morphotypes, the dominant cell types found in laboratory cultures of most strains of P. tricornutum. In cultures differing in proportions of fusiform and oval cells, there is a significant and positive correlation between the proportion of cells in the fusiform morphotype and the antibacterial activity of cell extracts. Extracts prepared from cultures enriched for fusiform cells (~76%) show greater antibacterial activity against the Gram-positive bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus, than those prepared from pure (100%) oval cultures. Thus fusiform cells contain greater antibacterial activity per cell compared to the ovals. Gas–liquid chromatographic analyses of the extracts reveal that those from enriched fusiform populations contain significantly greater levels of the free fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), hexadecatrienoic acid (HTA) and palmitoleic acid (PA) than the pure oval cell cultures. These free fatty acids from P. tricornutum have been previously shown by us to have potent antibacterial activity against S. aureus. Free fatty acids, released from damaged microalgal cells, defend the microalgal population against grazing predators but, here, we suggest that these free fatty acids could also act against pathogenic bacteria in the vicinity of the algae. As cell extracts from the fusiform cells contain greater quantities of these fatty acids, fusiform cells may have greater potential than the ovals for this type of protection.

In this paper we analysed size and shape differences of body (mantle and fins) and inferior beak of the squid Illex argentinus from two Patagonian inner-shelf spawning groups. A new method was developed to reconstruct three-dimensional coordinates based on the 2-D projection of the beak on a plane. Shape of the beak did not vary between groups, sexes and maturity condition of individuals. Also, no beak shape changes were observed through the ontogeny. In contrast, as larger and heavier squids were considered in shape analysis, body widened near the fin insertion, and fin area increased. Our results suggest that shape adaptations of I. argentinus through the ontogeny reflect modifications to optimize swimming performance rather than to increase gamete holding capacity.

Temporal, spatial and diel variation in the distribution and abundance of organisms is an inherent property of ecological systems. The present study describes these variations and the composition of decapod larvae from the surface waters of St Paul's Rocks. The expeditions to the archipelago were carried out in April, August and November 2003, March 2004 and May 2005. Surface plankton samples were collected during the morning and dusk periods, inside the inlet and in increasing distances around the archipelago (~150, 700 and 1500 m). The identification resulted in 51 taxa. Seven species, six genera and larvae of the families Pandalidae and Portunidae were identified for the first time in the area. The mean larval density varied from zero to 150.2±69.6 individuals 100 m−3 in the waters surrounding the archipelago and from 1.7±3.0 to 12,827±15,073 individuals 100 m−3 inside the inlet. Significant differences on larval density were verified between months and period of the day, but not among the three sites around the archipelago. Cluster and non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis indicated that the decapod larvae community was divided into benthic and pelagic assemblages. Indicator species analysis (ISA) showed that six Brachyura taxa were good indicators for the inlet, while three sergestids were the main species from the waters around the archipelago. These results suggest that St Paul's Rocks can be divided into two habitats, based on larval composition, density and diversity values: the inlet and the waters surrounding the archipelago.

Biometric relationships of size and weight were estimated for the Argentinean prawn (Artemesia longinaris), a new commercial penaeid prawn exploited in the south-western Atlantic. Morphometric and meristic traits were used to elucidate population structure of this species along its distribution area. The morphological relationships were estimated by a simple linear regression, considering total length (TL) as the dependent variable. The males collected in southern Brazil, an area under influence of the Subtropical Convergence, presented a slightly lower TL increment than females. A marked reduction in slopes of males between populations from southern Brazil was observed in autumn and winter. Additionally, relative growth in length of males from Argentina is similar to that observed during autumn and winter in southern Brazil. The other morphometric and meristic variables used also indicated higher similarities between southern Brazil and Argentina, which may be explained by relative growth associated to water temperatures or migration during winter, taking advantage of the oceanographic systems connecting both sites. Moreover, the population from Rio de Janeiro seems morphologically apart from the others, forming a separate unit stock.

Field investigations on Perna perna were carried out in 1999 in an unpolluted site (Cap Ghir) and a wastewater-polluted site (Anza) to determine the contents of glycogen, lipids and proteins in mussel samples collected every month. Sample analyses were made using the entire soft masses of male and female mussels or their gonads only. Compared to unpolluted P. perna, the glycogen and lipid concentrations found in polluted mussels showed significantly quantitative variations throughout the year; in contrast, insignificant differences were only found for protein concentrations. Female gonads contained higher rates of lipids than male ones, whereas protein contents were similar. In contrast, in entire mussels, females were richer than males, whatever the biochemical parameter considered. Apart from protein rates in December, most of highest concentrations were noted from October to November. Contrary to unpolluted mussels (of which storage components were constituted by glycogen and lipids), a different reserve strategy, mainly based on the use of lipids, followed by that of proteins would exist in the P. perna from the polluted bed.

This study confirms the diet and determines the trophic position of the bentfin devil ray (Mobula thurstoni) and spinetail devil ray (Mobula japanica) in the south-west Gulf of California. There has been an active fishery in the area for these filter-feeding elasmobranchs, which are highly susceptible to exploitation due to low fecundity and long lifespan. However, information on their basic biology is scarce. δ13C and δ15N values of devil rays and zooplankton (sorted according to trophic level: herbivores, carnivores and omnivores) were determined over a period of 11 months, to allow for isotopic temporal variations in isotopic signals at the base of the food web. On the basis of fractionation factors we determined that bentfin and spinetail devil rays fed mainly on Nyctiphanes simplex, the most abundant euphausiid in neritic waters of the Gulf of California. The trophic positions obtained for the devil rays correspond to second level consumers.

As well as acting as a neurotransmitter, serotonin is also involved in morphogenetic signalling during crucial phases of many developmental and regenerative processes such as cleavage, migration and differentiation. Echinoderms display nerve-dependent regenerative phenomena and serotonin is one of the main neural regulatory factors that have been identified in them. The present work was designed to investigate the broad-spectrum involvement of this molecule in echinoderm regeneration, focusing on arm regeneration in the crinoid Antedon mediterranea. We carried out specific in vivo exposure experiments to selected anti-serotonergic drugs (a synthesis inhibitor: parachlorophenylalanine and a receptor antagonist: methiothepin) and explored their possible effects on arm regeneration. Drug exposure appeared to affect regeneration, causing a general delay of regenerative growth and several histological anomalies mainly in the muscles of the stump. In addition, exposure to the antagonist produced a marked reduction of cell proliferation in both the regenerate and the stump. Our results provide further evidence that serotonin has wider functions than those related to interneuronal communication and that it may be a critical signalling molecule in the main processes of regeneration such as proliferation, morphogenesis and differentiation.

Information on cetaceans off Gabon in tropical West Africa is summarized from boat-based surveys carried out between 7 March and 7 August 2009. Thirteen cetacean species were positively identified comprising two baleen whale species, one sperm whale species and ten species of delphinid. Bryde's whale (Balaenoptera brydei) and humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) were the most frequently encountered species. Cetaceans were found throughout a range of sea surface temperature between 20.5°C and 27.5°C and a wide range of depths with the majority of effort and sightings occurring seaward of the shelf break. Of particular interest from the study were the following: (1) Gabonese waters have a broad cetacean diversity, especially with a large and diversified delphinid community in the northern part of the study area; (2) the variations in oceanographic conditions within Gabonese waters are likely to result in a temporal variation in species composition; (3) the sightings of Atlantic spotted dolphin (Stenella frontalis) are the first at-sea sightings confirmed for these waters, although not unexpected given their distribution and abundant presence in surrounding waters; and (4) the poorly known Clymene dolphin (Stenella clymene) was sighted on four occasions in deep oceanic waters and was the most abundant cetacean. These are the first confirmed records of Clymene dolphins in Gabonese waters.

Stomach contents of 893 blue shark (Prionace glauca) caught off Ensenada, Todos Santos Bay, Baja California, from 1995 to 1997 were analysed. 614 had identifiable food remains. A large variety of pelagic cephalopods occurred in 55.5% of all stomachs and accounted for 46.2% of all prey and 84% by estimated weight of stomach contents. The most abundant (17%) and frequent (32%) was Histioteuthis heteropsis and the most important by estimated weight (22%) was ‘Gonatus californiensis’. Argonauta spp. and Vampyroteuthis infernalis were also abundant prey. A pair of beaks of giant squid Architeuthis sp. constitutes the first record for Mexican waters. Feeding habits and the probability of scavenging on mesopelagic cephalopods is discussed. The single most abundant prey was the pelagic, red crab Pleuroncodes planipes (41.7%). Other prey included teleost fish, amniotes and floating items. Diet varied greatly between months with no clear seasonal pattern. Tiny diet differences due to shark size or sex were inconclusive. A thorough review of studies on blue sharks stomach contents analysis is given. Blue shark feed on a large variety of passive pelagic prey, mainly mesopelagic cephalopods, that could be preyed upon as well as scavenged. Depletion of this predator due to overfishing may be leading to unknown cascading top-down effects in the mesopelagic realm.

Barnacles are one of the dominant macrofouling organisms found in the intertidal region throughout the world. Among the different species of barnacles Balanus amphitrite (=Amphibalanus amphitrite) is a favoured candidate organism used in experimental studies. Larval development in this barnacle includes planktotrophic naupliar stages followed by pre-settling cyprid instar. Studies have shown that availability of food during naupliar development is of critical importance to successful metamorphosis of the cypris larva. Traditionally barnacle larvae are raised in the laboratory providing mono-algal cultures of diatoms as food organisms. Such a luxury is not a reality in the wild. Observations to quantify the food available for the nauplii deliberated by monitoring the faecal pellets egested by freshly captured larvae from a tropical estuarine environment (Dona Paula bay, Goa, west coast of India) influenced by monsoon and characteristic temporal variations in the phytoplankton abundance and diversity indicated that the percentage of defaecating larvae (an indicator of food consumed) was comparatively higher during the pre-monsoon season. Generally this season is characterized by lower chlorophyll-a concentration. However, the average number of faecal pellets defaecated by a larva remained constant irrespective of the season. Earlier work in the study area depicts temporal changes in phytoplankton community structure; diatoms dominate during the post-monsoon season whereas dinoflagellates dominate during the pre-monsoon season. These observations indicate a possible shift in the food available for the larvae. As the faecal pellets did not always have remnants of diatom frustules, it is possible to say that the larvae survived on food material other than diatoms. Settlement of barnacles on panels of aluminium in the vicinity was monitored throughout the year and peaked during the pre-monsoon season. It is thus possible to infer successful larval development and metamorphosis in this barnacle species on varying forms of food.

Relative growth and reproductive biology of Munida rutllanti were investigated for the first time in the Adriatic Sea. A total of 938 individuals were analysed. Sex-ratio differed statistically from the expected 1:1. Six individuals exhibited secondary sex characteristics of both males and females. Carapace length of males ranged from 10.5 to 21.5 mm, while in females it ranged from 11.2 to 19.4 mm. Sexual dimorphism was observed in seven morphometric characters. Ovigerous females were first observed in summer and later in autumn with higher frequency. Realized fecundity showed wide variation (273–3250 eggs) and positive correlation between the brood and female size. An epicaridean isopod Pleurocrypta sp., parasitizing the gill chamber of both sexes was isolated and its effect on the oogenesis was studied by histological examination of host reproductive system. Growth inhibition, modification of secondary sex characteristics, as well as retardation of oogenesis and failure of oviposition, are repercussions of bopyrid infestation. Given the small prevalence (7.85%) of the bopyrid in the M. rutllanti Adriatic population, we assume that for the moment there is no severe effect on the host population dynamic.

The family Thorectidae includes 23 valid genera and 130 species, characterized by the presence of laminated fibres and diplodal choanocytye chambers. Currently the genus Thorecta comprises approximately 20 valid species, distributed mainly in the Indo-Pacific. We describe here a new species of Thorecta that is the only valid species of the genus described in the Atlantic Ocean so far. Samples were collected by trawling on board of the RV ‘Astro Garoupa’ in Potiguar Basin, on the northern coast of Rio Grande do Norte State, north-eastern Brazil. Thorecta atlantica sp. nov. is greyish-brown to dark brownish-grey and presents a distinctive globular or clavulate shape, with 1–2 large apical oscules that open to deep atria. It was found between 61 and 160 m depth. A literature survey suggests that many species referred to Thorecta should be relocated to different genera due to absence of diagnostic characters, and that the genus Thorecta should group only 11 species: T. carteri, T. marginalis, T. prima, T. lata, T. farlovi, T. meandrina, T. polygona, T. reticulata, T. tuberculata, T. vasiformis and T. atlantica sp. nov. The tortuous history of the genus is an example of the damage that poorly-described species can cause to classification. Detailed descriptions of fresh material, well illustrated by photographs and including as many characters as possible, are essential tools for the clarification of the systematics of Thorecta in the future.

Eggs of Melongena melongena develop inside round, flat egg capsules which contain a gelatinous intracapsular fluid. To determine if this gel represents a nutritional source for the developing embryos, we measured the amount of proteins of the embryos throughout their development from the egg to the hatching stage as well as the protein content of the intracapsular liquid at the same stages of development. Egg capsules of M. melongena were collected at Golfete de Cuare, Venezuela between 1–2 m depth. Uncleaved eggs measured 352–480 μm and contained 8–15 μg of protein/egg. This amount of protein was not significantly different at the trochophore, veliger and pediveliger stages, however, it decreased significantly at the hatching stage to 6 μg/hatchling. About 95–98% of the eggs develop to the hatching stage, the remaining 2–5% remain intact in the egg capsule. Hatching takes place as a pediveliger measuring around 720 μm in shell length. The protein concentration of the intracapsular liquid was 0.18 μg/μl at the egg stage and it reached 0.13 μg/μl at the prehatching stage; however, the total amount of protein in the intracapsular fluid was not significantly different throughout the development from one stage to another. Results indicate that embryos of M. melongena use neither the intracapsular liquid as an extraembryonic food source, nor nurse eggs.