Hostname: page-component-788cddb947-xdx58 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-10-15T16:47:57.841Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Crisis of Authority: Crisis of Islam?1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 July 2009

Francis Robinson*
Affiliation:
Royal Holloway, University of London

Abstract

This essay examines the growing crisis of authority in the Muslim world of the past two hundred years. It is a crisis set in motion by the challenges of Western domination, intensified by those of globalisation, and exacerbated by Muslim attempts to resist them. It is a crisis which has pervaded all aspects of Muslim life, but one which has been felt particularly in the religious arena. Focussing initially on how authoritative religious knowledge was established and sustained down to c. 1800, the essay goes on to examine how this system broke down. It demonstrates the fragmentation of authority as new methods of interpretation emerge, as lay interpreters come forward to challenge the ʿulama, and as the individual human conscience comes to be given an increasingly important role. Consideration is also given to the growth of primary and higher education, the emergence of new electronic media, and the transnational movements of Muslims. The outcome has been the growth of a ‘spectacularly wild growth of interpretation’. It remains an open question as to whether this development is a cause for despair or a source of hope.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Royal Asiatic Society 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

2 For a brief but excellent survey of issues and scholarship relating to religious authority and authorities see Gudrun Kramer and Sabine Schmidtke, ‘Introduction: Religious authority and religious authorities in Muslim societies. A critical overview’, in Kramer, Gudrun and Schmidtke, Sabine eds., Speaking for Islam: Religious Authorities in Muslim Societies (Leiden, 2006), pp. 114CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Dabashi, Hamid, Authority in Islam: From the Rise of Muhammad to the Establishment of the Umayyads (Piscataway, NJ., 1989), p. 2Google Scholar.

4 Hodgson, Marshall G.S., The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, Vol. I (Chicago, 1974), pp. 187279CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Ibid., pp. 71–93.

6 Al-Ghazali, al-Munqidh min ad-Dalal, W. Montgomery Watt trans., The Faith and Practice of Al-Ghazali (Oxford, 1994).

7 Graham, William A., Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 9697Google Scholar.

8 Khaldun, Ibn, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, trans. Rosenthal, Franz, ed. by Dawood, N.J. (Princeton, 1967), p. 421Google Scholar.

9 Pedersen, J., The Arabic Book, trans. French, G., ed., Hillenbrand, R. (Princeton, 1984), pp. 2036CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10 Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, p. 431–433.

11 Pedersen, Arabic Book, p. 35; Timothy Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 150–154; Chamberlain, Michael, Knowledge and Social Practice in Medieval Damascus 1190–1350 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 137138Google Scholar; Nasr, Sayyed HosseinOral Transmission and the book in Islamic Education: The Spoken and the Written Word’, Journal of Islamic Studies, 3, 1, January 1992, pp. 114CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Sartain, E. M., Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti, Vol. 1 (Cambridge, 1975), p. 74Google Scholar.

13 Chamberlain, Knowledge and Social Practice, p. 139.

14 Gibb, Sir Hamilton, ‘Islamic Biographical Literature’ in Lewis, B. and Holt, P. M. eds., Historians of the Middle East (London, 1962), pp. 5458Google Scholar and al-Qadi, Wadad, ‘Biographical Dictionaries as the Scholars' alternative history of the Muslim Community’, in Endress, G., ed., Organizing Knowledge: Encyclopaedic Activities in the Pre-Eighteenth Century Islamic World (London, 2006), pp. 2375Google Scholar.

15 Robinson, Francis, ‘Islam and the Impact of Print in South Asia’ in Francis Robinson, Islam and Muslim History in South Asia (Delhi, 2000), pp. 66104Google Scholar.

16 Muhammad, Mawlana Mawlwi ‘Inayat Allah, Tadhkira-yi ‘Ulama-i Farangi Mahall (Lucknow, 1928), pp. 137138Google Scholar.

17 Minute recorded in the General Department by Thomas Babington Macaulay, law member of the governor-general's council, dated 2 February 1835 in Zastoupal, Lynn and Moir, Martin, The Great Indian Education Debate: Documents Relating to the Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy, 1781–1843 (London, 1999), p. 165Google Scholar.

18 This excerpt was translated by Gail Minault in G. Minault ‘Urdu Political Poetry during the Khilafat Movement’, Modern Asian Studies, 8, 4, 1974, pp. 459–471.

19 Pamuk, Orhan, Istanbul: Memories of a City (London, 2005), pp. 7996, 137–154Google Scholar.

20 di Lampedusa, Giuseppe, The Leopard (London, 1991)Google Scholar.

21 A.J. Arberry trans, Persian Psalms (Zabur-i Ajam) . . . from the Persian of the late Sir Muhammad Iqbal (Karachi, 1968), p. 76.

22 Ralph Russell and Khurshidul Islam, ‘The Satirical Verse of Akbar Ilahabadi (1860–1921)’, Modern Asian Studies, 8, 1, 1974, p. 9.

23 Muhammad, Mawlana Mawlwi ‘Inayat Allah, Risala-i hadrat al-afaq ba wafat majmua al-akhlaq (Lucknow, 1348/1929–30), p. 35Google Scholar.

24 For this diverse interpretative response see Robinson, Francis ‘Ulama of South Asia from 1800 to the mid-Twentieth Century’, in Francis Robinson, Islam, South Asia and the West (Delhi, 2007), pp. 5998Google Scholar.

25 Idem.

26 Metcalf, Barbara D., Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900 (Princeton, NJ., 1982), pp. 198215CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stark, Ulrike, An Empire of Books: the Naval Kishore Press and the Diffusion of the Printed Word in Colonial India (Delhi, 2007)Google Scholar.

27 Robinson, ‘Impact of Print’ pp. 80–81.

28 Robinson, Francis ‘Other-Worldly and This-Worldly Islam and the Islamic Revival’ in Francis Robinson, Islam, South Asia and the West (Delhi, 2007), pp. 171188Google Scholar.

29 Ibid., pp. 179–182.

30 Robinson, ‘Impact of Print’, pp. 80–81. Other professions were also able to rebuild their authority through print, not least medical hakims for whom authority was essential, see G.N.A. Attewell, Refiguring Unani Tibb: Plural Healing in Colonial India (Hyderabad AP., 2007).

31 Rahman, Fazlur, ‘Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies: Review Essay’ in Martin, Richard C., ed., Approaches to Islam in Religious Studies (Oxford, 2001), p. 195Google Scholar.

32 Speech delivered by Khomeini at the Fayziya Madrasa in Qum on 3 June 1963 in Hamid Algar, trans. and ed., Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini (Berkeley, 1981), p. 179.

33 Lawrence, Bruce, Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden (London, 2005), p. 12Google Scholar.

34 For the general argument, see Eickelmann, Dale F. and Anderson, Jon W., ‘Redefining Muslim Publics’ in Eickelmann, Dale F. and Anderson, Jon W. eds., New Media in the Muslim World: The Emerging Public Sphere (Bloomington and Indianapolis, 2003), pp. 118Google Scholar.

35 Personal communication from Dr Hasan Kaleghi, Iranian Minister for Higher Education, 21 January 2005.

36 For examples of these booklets see Robinson, Francis ed., Cambridge Illustrated History of Islam (Cambridge, 1996), p. 247Google Scholar.

37 Maimuna Haq, ‘From Piety to Romance: Islam-Oriented texts in Bangladesh’ in Eickelmann and Anderson, New Media, pp. 129–157.

38 Mardin, Serif, Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (Albany NY., 1984), p. 4Google Scholar.

39 See, for instance, M. Hakan Yavuz, ‘Nur Study Circles (Dershanes) and the Formation of New Religious Consciousness in Turkey’, in Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi ed. and intro., Islam at the Cross roads: On the Life and Thought of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (Albany, NY., 2003), pp. 297–316, and Haq, Maimuna, ‘Reading the Quran in Bangladesh: The Politics of ‘Belief’ Among Islamist Women’, Modern Asian Studies, 42, 23, March/May, 2008, pp. 457–488Google Scholar.

40 Taji-Farouki, Suha ed., Modern Muslim Intellectuals and the Qur'an (Oxford, 2004), pp. 1819Google Scholar.

41 Jakob Skovgaard Petersen ‘The Gobal Mufti’ in Birgit Schaebler and Leif Stenberg, Globalization and the Muslim World (Syracuse NY., 2004), pp. 153–165. For the views of some ʿulama, and in particular Qaradawi, on how a new consensus might be formed out of fragmented religious authority see, Muhammad Qasim Zaman, ‘Consensus and religious authority in modern Islam’, in Kramer and Schmidtke, Speaking for Islam, pp. 153–180.

42 Mandaville, Peter, Global Political Islam (Abingdon, 2007), pp. 329330Google Scholar.

43 Mandaville, Islam, p. 323.

44 Husain, Ed, The Islamist: Why I joined radical Islam in Britain, what I saw inside and why I left (London, 2007)Google Scholar; Mandaville, Islam, pp. 320–321; Roy, Olivier, Globalised Islam: The Search for a New Umma (London, 2004), pp. 164167Google Scholar.

45 Roy, Globalised Islam, pp. 201–220.

46 For an excellent discussion of individualisation and the decline of religious authority, particularly amongst Muslims in the western world, see Ibid., pp. 148–184.

47 Begg, Moazzam, Enemy Combatant: A British Muslim's Journey to Guantanamo and Back (London, 2006)Google Scholar.

48 Husain, Islamist, pp. 129–153.

49 Speech of Abu Hamza, December 2000, cited in Roy, Globalised Islam, p. 166.

50 El Fadl, Khaled Abou, Cohen, Joshua and Deborah eds, Chasman., Islam and the Challenge of Democracy (Princeton NJ, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; The Place of Tolerance in Islam (Boston, 2002); Speaking in God's Name: Islamic Law, Authority and Women (Oxford, 2001).

51 Wadud, Amina, Qur'an and Women: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman's Perspective (New York, 1999)Google Scholar; Barlas, Asthma, Believing Women in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an (Austin, 2002)Google Scholar.