Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-t5pn6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-17T13:53:51.399Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Settlement Organization and Architecture in Late Intermediate Period Chachapoyas, Northeastern Peru

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Anna Guengerich
Anna Guengerich*
Affiliation:
Vanderbilt University, Department of Anthropology, 124 Garland Hall, Nashville, TN 37235, (annaguengerich@gmail.com)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Chachapoya societies that lived on the forested eastern slopes of the Andes in northern Peru between A.D. 1000 and 1450 remain largely absent from broader narratives of the Andean Late Intermediate period (LIP). This paper argues that environmentally deterministic frameworks and lingering Inka biases have led scholars to problematically isolate Chachapoyans from their highland contemporaries. This work reviews three aspects of Chachapoya built environments—settlement patterning, internal organization, and architectural style—in order to provide a baseline for comparison with other regions. Chachapoyas shared a pattern of hilltop settlement locations with nearly all of the highlands, which suggests that its inhabitants faced the same shared factors that prompted changes in settlement organization on a massive scale in this region during the LIP. At the same time, comparison of Chachapoya built environments with others of the northern, central, and southern highlands highlights the considerable diversity within and between regions. This demonstrates that Chachapoyas is best interpreted as simply one of many regions that were characterized by distinctive spatlalltles and architectural forms. These reflected locally specific cultural practices and social institutions. Including Chachapoyas and other regions of the Eastern Andes in accounts of the LIP underscores the diversity and dynamism that characterized this period of significant change in Andean history.

Resumen

Resumen

Las sociedades chachapoyas que habitaron en las vertientes orientales de los Andes del norte de Peru entre 1000—7450 d.C. siguen ausentes de la historiografia general del Periodo Intermedia Tardío. Este trabajo plantea la idea de que el determinismo ambientaly la influencia de la ideología inka han resultado en el aislamlento analítico de los chachapoya de sus contemporáneos en la sierra, a pesar de que las investigaciones regionales siguen brindando más evidenclas de las interconexiones que existieron entre la sierra y las vertientes orientales de los Andes. En este articulo se examinan tres aspectos de los paisajes construidos de Chachapoyas—lospatrones de asentamiento, la organizatión interna y el estilo arquitectónico—paraproducir una base de comparacion con otras regiones. Chachapoyas compartión con casi toda la sierra un patron de asentamiento en lugares elevados, el cual sugiere que los habltantes de esta region enfrentaron los mlsmos factores que provocaron cambios a gran escala en los asentamientos durante esta epoca. A la misma vez, la comparacion de los paisajes construidos de Chachapoyas con otros de la sierra norte, central y sur, muestra la gran diversidad entre y dentro de cada region. Esta implica que Chachapoyas presenta sólo un ejemplo de muchas sociedades regionales que se caracterizaron por espacialidades y formas arquitectonicas distintas, las cuales evidencian prdcticas culturales e instituciones sociales locales. De este modo, la integratión de Chachapoyas en las historias arqueológicas ayuda a poner énfasis en la diversidad y el dinamismo que caracterizaron esta epoca de cambios importantes en elpasado andino.

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 26 , Issue 3 , September 2015 , pp. 362 - 381
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2015

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Arkush, Elizabeth 2005 Colla Fortified Sites: Warfare and Regional Power in the Late Prehispanic Titicaca Basin, Peru. Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Arkush, Elizabeth 2008 War, Chronology, and Causality in the Titicaca Basin. Latin American Antiquity 19(4):339–373.Google Scholar
Arkush, Elizabeth, and Stanish, Charles 2005 Interpreting Conflicto in the Ancient Andes: Implications for the Archaeology of Warfare. Current Anthropology 46(1):3–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arkush, Elizabeth, and Tung, Tiffiny 2013 Patterns of War in the Andes from the Archaic to the Late Horizon: Insights from Settlement Patterns and Cranial Trauma. Journal of Archaeological Research 21:307–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, Brian, and Covey, R. Alan 2002 Processes of State Formation in the Inca Heartland (Cuzco, Peru). American Anthropologist 104:846–864.Google Scholar
Bonavía, Duccio 1968 Las ruinas del Abiseo. Universidad Peruana de Ciencias y Tecnología, Lima.Google Scholar
Bonnier, Elizabeth 1981 Las ruinas de Tantamayo: vestigios de una ocupación tardía (Provincia de Huamalíes, Departamento de Huánuco). Boletín de Lima 14: 38–53.Google Scholar
Bonnier, Elizabeth 1997 Morfología del espacio aldeano y su expresión cultural en los Andes Centrales. In Archaeologica Peruana 2: arquitectura y civilización en los Andes prehispánicos, edited by E. Bonnier and H. Bischof, pp. 28–41. Sociedad Arqueológica Peruano-Alemana, Reiss-Museum, Mannheim, Germany.Google Scholar
Brush, Steven 1977 Mountain, Field, and Family: The Economy and Human Ecology of an Andean Valley. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Bueno Mendoza, Alberto, and García, Miguel Cornejo 2009 Arqueología de la cuenca del Rio Guabayacu. Región de San Martín, Perú. Investigaciones Sociales 13(23): 15–58.Google Scholar
Church, Warren 1994 Early Occupations at Gran Pajatén, Peru. Andean Past 4:281–318.Google Scholar
Church, Warren 1996 Prehistoric Cultural Development and Interregional Interaction in the Tropical Montane Forests of Peru. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Yale University.Google Scholar
Church, Warren, and von Hagen, Adriana 2008 Chachapoyas: Cultural Development at an Andean Cloud Forest Crossroads. In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman and W. Isbell, pp. 903–926. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Cieza de León, Pedro 1996 [1553] Crónica del Peru: tercera parte. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Penú, Lima.Google Scholar
Conlee, Christina, Dulanto, Jalh, Mackey, Carol, and Stanish, Charles 2004 Late Prehispanic Sociopolitical Complexity. In Andean Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman, pp. 209–236. Blackwell, New York.Google Scholar
Covey, R. Alan 2008 Multiregional Perspectives on the Archaeology of the Andes during the Late Intermediate Period. Journal of Archaeological Research 16:287–338.Google Scholar
Crandall, James 2014 Chachapoy Eschatology: Spaces of Death in the Northern Andes. Baessler-Archiv Band 60:1–17.Google Scholar
D’Altroy, Terence, and Hastorf, Christine (editors) 2001 Empire and Domestic Economy. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Davis, Morgan 1996 La Casa Redonda y Yurac-Urco. Noelville, Ontario.Google Scholar
Dean, Emily 2005 Ancestors, Mountains, Shrines, and Settlements: Late Intermediate Period Landscapes of the Southern Vilcanota River Valley, Peru. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
DeMarrais, Elizabeth 2001 The Architecture and Organization of Xauxa Settlements. In Empire and Domestic Economy, edited by Terence D’Altroy and Christine Hastorf, pp. 115–153. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Dulanto, Jalh 2008 Between Horizons: Diverse Configurations of Society and Power in the Late Pre-hispanic Central Andes. In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by H. Silverman and W. Isbell, pp. 761–782. Springer, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espinoza Soriano, Waldemar 1967 Los señoríos étnicos de Chachapoyas y la alianza hispano-chacha. Revista Histórica 30:224–332.Google Scholar
Fabre, Olivier 2006 Contribution à l’archéologie de la région Chachapoya, Pérou. Ph.D. dissertation, Université Paris-Sorbonne.Google Scholar
Fabre, Olivier, Guyot, Jean Loup, Gismondi, Rodolfo Salas, Pizarro, Manuel Malaver, and Maniero, Ermanno 2008 Los chachapoya de la región de Soloco: Chaquil, del sitio de hábitat a la cueva funeraria. Bulletin de l’lnstitut François d’Études Andines 37(2):271–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frye, Kirk, and de la Vega, Edmundo 2005 The Altiplano Period in the Titicaca Basin. In Advances in Titicaca Basin Archaeology I, edited by Charles Stanish, Amanda Cohen, and Mark Aldenderfer, pp. 173–184. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Graffam, Gray 1992 Beyond State Collapse: Rural History, Raised Fields, and Pastoralism in the South Andes. American Anthropologist 94(4): 882–904.Google Scholar
Guengerich, Anna 2014a Monte Viudo: Residential Architecture and the Everyday Production of Space in a Chachapoya Village. PhD. dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Graffam, Gray 2014b The Architect’s Signature: The Social Production of a Residential Landscape at Monte Viudo, Chachapoyas, Peru. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 34:1–16.Google Scholar
Guillén, Sonia 2000 Informe final del proyecto “Evaluatión y delimitatión del sitio arqueológico Llaqtacocha. Report submitted to the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Perú.Google Scholar
Guillén, Sonia 2002 The Mummies of the Laguna de los Cóndores. In Chachapoyas: El Reino Perdido, edited by E. González and R. León, pp. 345–387. AFP Integra, Lima.Google Scholar
Hastings, Charles 1985 The Eastern Frontier: Settlement and Subsistence in the Andean Margins of Central Peru, Vol.1. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Michigan.Google Scholar
Herrera, Alexander 2003 Patrones de asentamiento y cambios en las estrategias de ocupación en la cuenca sur del rio Yanamayo, Callejón de Conchucos. In Arqueología de la Sierra de Ancash: Propuestas y Perspectivas, edited by B. Ibarra Asencios, pp. 221–249. Instituto Cultural RVNA, Lima.Google Scholar
Hyslop, John 1976 An Archaeological Investigation of the Lupaca Kingdom and Its Origins. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New York.Google Scholar
Ibarra Asencios, Bebel 2014 Espacio y cronología en la sierra de Norte del Peru: Balance de las investigaciones arqueológicas en la provincia de Huari. In Cien Años de la Arqueología en la Sierra de Ancash, edited by B. Ibarra, pp. 11–4. Instituto de Estudios Huarinos, Ancash, Penú.Google Scholar
Isbell, William 1997 Mummies and Mortuary Monuments: A Postprocessual Prehistory of Central Andean Social Organization. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Janusek, John Wayne 2005 Collapse as Cultural Revolution: Power and Identity in the Tiwanaku to Pacajes Transition. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association XIV: 175–209.Google Scholar
Julien, Daniel 1988 Ancient Cuismancu: Settlement and Cultural Dynamics in the Cajamarca Region of the North Highlands of Peru, 200 B.C.-A.D.1532. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Kauffman Doig, Federico 2009 Constructores de Kuelap y Pajatén: los Chachapoyas. Centra de Investigaciones Turismo Kuelap, S.A, Lima.Google Scholar
Kellett, Lucas 2010 Chanka Settlement Ecology: Hilltop Sites, Land Use, and Warfare in Late Prehispanic Andahuaylas, Peru. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Kendall, Ann 1985 Aspects of Inca Architecture: Description, Function, and Chronology, Parts 1 and 2. BAR International Series 242. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Kojan, David 2002 Cultural Identity and Historical Narratives of the Bolivian Eastern Andes: An Archaeological Study. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Koschmieder, Klaus 2008 Proyecto arqueológico Jucusbamba: primera temporada. Report submitted to the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima. Copies available from the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima, Peru.Google Scholar
Koschmieder, Klaus 2010 Proyecto arqueológico Jucusbamba: segunda ternporada (2009–2010). Report submitted to the Instituto National de Cultura, Lima. Copies available from the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima, Peru.Google Scholar
Koschmieder, Klaus 2011 Arte rupestre en la Provincia de Luya, Departamento de Amazonas. Revista del Museo de Arqueología, Antropología, e Historia 12: 167–205.Google Scholar
Koschmieder, Klaus 2012 Jucusbamba: investigaciones arqueológicas y motivos Chachapoya en el none de la Provincia de Luya, Departamento Amazonas, Perú. Ministerio de Agriculture, Lima.Google Scholar
Koschmieder, Klaus 2014 Los orígenes y el desarrollo de la organizatión socio-política de la cultura Chachapoya: una mirada desde la provincia de Luya, Departamento Amazonas, Perú, Peru. In Antes de Orellana—Actas del 3er Encuentro International de Arqueologia Amazónica, ed. S. Rostain, pp. 243–249, 528–529. Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, Quito.Google Scholar
Koschmieder, Klaus 2015 Asentamientos chachapoyas en el norte de la provincia de Luya, departamento de Amazonas. Arqueología y Sociedad, in press.Google Scholar
Kosiba, Steven 2010 Becoming Inka: The Transformation of Political Place and Practice during Inka State Formation (Cusco, Peru). Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago, Chicago.Google Scholar
Kosiba, Steven 2011 The Politics of Locality: Pre-Inka Social Landscapes of the Cusco Region. In The Archaeology of Politics: The Materiality of Political Practice and Action in the Past, edited by Peter Johansen and Andrew Bauer, pp. 114–150. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Krzanowki, Andrzej 1977 Yuraccama. The Settlement Complex in the Alto Chicama Region (Northern Peru.) In Polish Contributions in New World Archaeology, edited by J. Kozlowski, pp. 29–58. Zaklad Narodowy im. Ossolin¥skich, Wroclaw, Poland.Google Scholar
Langlois, Louis 1939 Utcubamba: investigaciones arqueológicas en este valle del departamento de Amazonas. Revista del Museo Nacional 8(2):224–249.Google Scholar
Langlois, Louis 1940a Utcubamba: investigaciones arqueológicas en este valle del departamento de Amazonas. Revista del Museo Nacional 9(1):34–71.Google Scholar
Langlois, Louis 1940b Utcubamba: investigaciones arqueológicas en este valle del departamento de Amazonas. Revista del Museo Nacional 9(2):191–228.Google Scholar
Lathrap, Donald 1971 The Tropical Forest Culture and the Cultural Context of Chavín. In Dumbarton Oaks Conference on Chavín, edited by Elizabeth Benson, pp. 73–100. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Lavallée, Daniele, and Mien, Michele 1983 Asto: Curacazgo Prehispánico de los Andes Centrales. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima.Google Scholar
LeBlanc, Catherine 1981 Late Prehispanic Huanca Settlement Patterns in the Yanamarca Valley, Peru. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Lerche, Peter 1995 Los Chachapoyay los Símbolos de su Historia. Ediciones y Servicios Gráficos César Gayoso, Lima.Google Scholar
Lyon, Patricia 1981 An Imaginary Frontier: Prehistoric Highland-Lowland Interchange in the Southern Peruvian Andes. In Networks of the Past: Regional Interaction in Archaeology, edited by P. Francis, F. Kense, and P. Duke, pp. 3–18. University of Calgary Archaeological Association, Calgary.Google Scholar
Mantha, Alexis 2006 Late Prehispanic Social Complexity in the Rapayán Valley, Upper Marañón Drainage, Central Andes of Peru. In La Complejidad Social en la Sierra de Ancash, edited by A. Herrera, C. Orsini, and K. Lane, pp. 35–62. Civiche Raccolte D’Arte Applicata del Castello Sforzesco-Raccolte Extraeuropee, Milano, Italy.Google Scholar
Matos Mendieta, Ramiro 1972 Wakan y Wamalli: estudio arqueológico de dos aldeas rurales. In Visita de la Provincia de León de Huánuco en 1562, Vol.2., edited by J. Murra, pp. 369–381. Universidad Nacional Hermilio Valdizán, Huánuco, Peru.Google Scholar
Maullama Rafael, Rolando, and Munguía, Manuel Perales 2005 Vinjullo: un asentamiento prehispánico en la ceja de selva de Curimarca, Jauja. Unay Runa 7:209–218.Google Scholar
Morris, Craig, and Thompson, Donald 1985 Huánuco Pampa: An Inca City and Its Hinterland. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Muscutt, Keith 1998 Warriors of the Clouds: A Lost Civilization in the Upper Amazon of Peru. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Muscutt, Keith 2013 Vira Vira y otros sitios arqueológicos chachapoyas. In Los Chachpaoyas, edited by Federico Kauffman Doig, pp. 189–212. Banco de Crédito de Perú, Lima.Google Scholar
Muscutt, Keith, Lee, Vincent, and Sharon, Douglas 1993 Vira Vira: A “New ” Chachapoya Site. Sixpac Manco Publications, Wilson.Google Scholar
Narváez Vargas, Alfredo 1996a La fortalezade Kuelap 1. Arkinka 12:92–108.Google Scholar
Narváez Vargas, Alfredo 1996b La fortaleza de Kuelap 2. Arkinka 13:90–98.Google Scholar
Narváez Vargas, Alfredo 2013 Kuelap: centra del poder político religioso de los Chachapoyas. In Los Chachapoyas, edited by Federico Kauffman Doig, pp. 87–159. Banco de Crédito, Lima.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Axel 2002 Asentamientos, conflicto, y cambio social en el altiplano de Lípez (Potosí). Revista Española de Antropología Americana 32:179–205.Google Scholar
Nystrom, Kenneth, Buikstra, Jane, and Muscutt, Keith 2010 Chachapoya Mortuary Behavior: a Consideration of Method and Meaning. Revista de Antropología Chilena 42(2):477–495.Google Scholar
Nystrom, Kenneth, and Toyne, Maria 2013 Place of Strong Men: Skeletal Trauma among the Chachapoya and the (re)Construction of Social Identity. In The Routledge Handbook of the Bioarchaeology of Human Conflict, edited by Christopher Knusel and Martin Smith, pp. 371–388. Routledge, New York.Google Scholar
Parsons, Jeffrey, Hastings, Charles, and Mendieta, Ramiro Matos 2000 Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in the Upper Mantaro and Tarma Drainages, Junin, Peru, Volume 1: The Tarama-Chinchaycocha Region, Part 1. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Parsons, Jeffrey, Hastings, Charles, and Mendieta, Ramiro Matos 2013 Prehispanic Settlement Patterns in the Upper Mantaro, Junin, Peru. Volume 2: The Wanka Region. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Pérez Calderón, Ismael 1988 Monumentos arqueológicos de Santiago de Chuco, La Libertad. Boletín de Lima 60:33–14.Google Scholar
Pineda Quevedo, Josí 1989 Patrones de Asentamientos Pre-Hispánicos en el Valle de Condebamba. CONCYTEC, Lima.Google Scholar
Raymond, Scott 1976 Late Prehistoric and Historic Settlements in the Upper Montaña of Peru. In Canadian Archaeology Abroad, edited by P. Shinnie, J. Robertson, and F. Kense, pp. 205–211. University of Calgary Press, Calgary.Google Scholar
Reichlen, Henry, and Reichlen, Paule 1950 Recherches archéologiques dans les Andes du haut Utcubamba. Journal de la Société des Américanistes 39: 219–246.Google Scholar
Ruiz Barcellos, Jorge Luis 2007 Arqueología y arquitectura de Yálape en la provincia de Amazonas. Arkinka 136:84–91.Google Scholar
Ruiz Estrada, Arturo 1979 Los monumentos arqueológicos de Leimebamba. Boletín de Lima 42: 69–82.Google Scholar
Ruiz Estrada, Arturo 2004 Purumllacta: un centro administrativo incaico en Chachapoyas. Investigaciones Sociales 8(13): 73–84.Google Scholar
Ruiz Estrada, Arturo 2009 Alfarería de Kuelap: Traditión y Cambio. Avqi Ediciones, Lima.Google Scholar
Ruiz Estrada, Arturo 2011 Amazonas: Arqueologia e Historia. Universidad Alas Peruanas, Lima.Google Scholar
Saignes, Thierry 1985 Los Andes Orientales: Historia de un Olvido. Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, Lima.Google Scholar
Salcedo Camacho, Luis 2010 La tradición Wamali del Alto Marañón. Arkeos 5(12): 1–14.Google Scholar
Schjellerup, Inge 1992a Pre-Columbian Field Systems and Vegetation in the Jalca of Northeastern Peru. In Páramo, edited by Henrik Balslev and James Luteyn, pp. 137–150. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Schjellerup, Inge 1992b Patrones de asentamiento en las faldas orientales de los Andes de la región de Chachapoyas. In Estudios de arqueología peruana, edited by Duccio Bonavía, pp.355–373. FOMCIENCIAS, Lima.Google Scholar
Schjellerup, Inge 2002 Reflexiones sobre los Chachapoya en el Chinchaysuyu. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 6:43–56.Google Scholar
Schjellerup, Inge 2005 Incas y Españoles en la Conquista de los Chachapoya. PUCP, Lima.Google Scholar
Schjellerup, Inge, Sørenson, Mikael Kamp, Espinoza, Carolina, Quipuscoa, Victor, and Peña, Victor 2003 Los Valles Olvidados: Pasado y Presente en la Utilizatión de Recursos en la Ceja de Selva, Perú. Ethnographic Monographs, No.1. National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Schjellerup, Inge, Espinoza, Carolina, Rollefson, James, Quipuscoa, Victor, Sørenson, Mikael Kamp, and Peña, Victor 2009 La Ceja de Montaña: un Paisqje que va Despareciendo, Ethnographic Monographs, No.3. National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen. Schreiber, Katharina Google Scholar
Schjellerup, Inge, Espinoza, Carolina, Rollefson, James, Quipuscoa, Victor, Sørenson, Mikael Kamp, and Peña, Victor 1987 Conquest and Consolidation: a Comparison of the Wari and Inka Occupations of a Highland Peruvian valley. American Antiquity 52(2):266–284.Google Scholar
Starn, Orin 1991 Missing the Revolution: Anthropologists and the War in Peru. Cultural Anthropology 6(1):63–91.Google Scholar
Taylor, Gerald 1989 La lengua de los antiguos Chachapuyas. In Temas de Lingüística Amerindia: Primer Congreso National de Investigaciones Lingüístico-Filológicas, edited by W. Adelaar, R. Cerrón-Palomino, and F. Solís, pp.121–139. Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Lima.Google Scholar
Tello, Julio C. 1942 Origen y desarrollo de las civilizaciones prehistóricas andinas. Actos y trabajos científicos del XVII congreso international de americanistas, Vol.1, pp.589–720. Lima.Google Scholar
Thompson, Donald 1973 Archaeological Investigations in the Eastern Andes of Northern Peru. Acts of the 39th International Congress of Americanists, Vol. 1, pp.363–369. Rome/Genoa.Google Scholar
Thompson, Donald 1976 Prehistory of the Uchucmarca Valley in the North Highlands of Peru. Proceedings of the 41st International Congress of Americanists 99–106.Google Scholar
Toohey, Jason 2009 Community Organization, Militarism, and Ethnogenesis in the Late Prehistoric Northern Highlands of Peru. Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara.Google Scholar
Toyne, Maria, and Vargas, Alfredo Narváez 2014 The Fall of Kuelap: Bioarchaeological Analysis of Death and Destruction on the Eastern Slopes of the Andes. In Embattled Bodies, Embattled Places: War in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and the Andes, edited by Andrew Scherer and John Verano, pp. 341–364. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Vega Ocampo, Abel 1982 Complejo arqueológico de Uchucmarca: Conjunto Pirca-Pirca; sus cámaras internas. Investigatión Arqueológica 4:41–45.Google Scholar
von Hagen, Adriana 2002a Chachapoya Iconography and Society at Laguna de los Cóndores, Peru. In Andean Archaeology, Volume II: Art, Landscape, and Society, edited by H. Silverman and W. Isbell, pp.137–155. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
von Hagen, Adriana 2002b Pueblo de las nubes. In Chachapoyas: el Reino Perdido, edited by E. González and R. León, pp. 24–261. AFP/Íntegra, Lima.Google Scholar
Wassén, S. Henry 1979 Was Espingo (Ispincu) of Psychotropic and Intoxicating Importance for the Shamans in Peru? In Spirits, Shamans, and Stars: Perspectives from South America, edited by David Browman and Ronald Schwarz, pp. 55–62. Mouton, New York.Google Scholar
Wernke, Steven 2013 Negotiated Settlements: Andean Communities and Landscapes under Inka and Spanish Colonialism. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Zevallos, Jorge 1995 El área geográfico-cultural de la prehistoria de Chachapoyas: una nueva postulación. Gaceta arqueológica andina 24:13–23.Google Scholar
Zovar, Jennifer 2007 Contact, Conflict, Trade and Migration: Interregional Interaction in the Andean Late Intermediate Period. Buletinul Cercurilor Stiin ifice Studen esti, Arheologie-Istorie-Muzeologie 13:65–78.Google Scholar
Zovar, Jennifer 2012 Post-Collapse Constructions of Community, Memory, and Identity: An Archaeological Analysis of Late Intermediate Period Community Formation in Bolivia’s Desaguadero Valley. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University.Google Scholar