Introduction: The Future of Restrictivist Scholarship on the Use of Force

1 W. Shakespeare, Coriolanus, Act 1, Scene 1.

2 Definition of Aggression, G.A. 3314 (XXIX), UN Doc. A/RES/3314 (14 December 1974), Art. 3(a).

3 Garcia-Salmones, M., ‘Faith, Ritual and Rebellion in 21st Century (Positivist) International Law’, (2015) 26 EJIL 537, at 548.

4 Kammerhofer, J., ‘The Resilience of the Restrictive Rules of Self-Defence’ in Weller, M. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Use of Force in International Law (2015), 627, at 629.

5 Kammerhofer, supra note 4, at 632.

6 J. Kammerhofer, Uncertainty in International Law: A Kelsenian Perspective (2010), 41 (emphasis removed and added).

7 Raphaël van Steenberghe's writings are a welcome exception.

8 de Hoogh, A., ‘Restrictivist Reasoning on the Ratione Personae Dimension of Armed Attacks in the Post 9/11 World’, (2016) 29 LJIL 19, at 39.

9 van Steenberghe, R., ‘The Law of Self-Defence and the New Argumentative Landscape on the Expansionists’ Side’, (2016) 29 LJIL 43, at 44.

10 He is careful to point out that state practice should be seen in a wide sense – evidencing both behaviour and opinio juris – and that we are thus actually talking about customary international law.

11 Banks, W. and Criddle, E., ‘Customary Constraints on the Use of Force: Article 51 with an American Accent’, (2016) 29 LJIL 67, at 68.

12 Ibid., at 87.

13 Ibid., at 73.

14 Ibid., at 93.

15 Martineau, A.-C., ‘Concerning Violence. A Post-Colonial Reading of the Debate on the Use of Force’, (2016) 29 LJIL 95 , at 101.

16 Ibid., at 109.

17 Shultz, G., ‘Low-Intensity Warfare: The Challenge of Ambiguity’, 1986 (March) 86 Department of State Bulletin 15, at 17.