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Myth played an important role in Greek religion: it illustrated and defined the roles of gods and heroes (Ch. II.1); it explained aspects of rituals (Ch. IV.3), showed correct or deviant patterns of behaviour, and reflected on human behaviour and the cosmos. Since, of all aspects of Greek religion, myth has probably drawn the greatest attention and the largest number of different approaches, we start with a short historical survey of these approaches and a discussion of recent definitions (§ 1). Then we analyse origins and uses of myth (§ 2) and study the relations between myth and ritual (§ 3). We conclude by looking at some changes in the popularity of myths, as reflected by the visual arts, and the nature of myth itself (§ 4).
1. Cf. Scheer, T. S., Mythische Vorväter. Zur Bedeutung griechischer Heroenmythen im Selbstverständnis kleinasiatischer Städte (Munich, 1993), pp. 24-9.
2. It is therefore curious that there is no chapter on mythology in Nilsson, M. P., Geschichte der griechischen Religion 1 (Munich, 1967 3), the previous standard handbook on Greek religion; Rudhardt, Notions fondamentales; Burkert, GR, and Jost, Aspects. Bruit/Schmitt, Religion, pp. 143–75 do discuss mythology but rather unsatisfactorily: they virtually neglect Burkert’s contributions but praise Georges Dumézil highly.
3. Good introductions, each with a different approach: Dowden, K., The Uses of Greek Mythology (London, 1992); Graf, F., Greek Mythology (Baltimore and London, 1993); Said, S., Approches de la mythologie grecque (Paris, 1993); Buxton, Imaginary Greece. See also Calarne, C. (ed), Métamorphoses du mythe en Grèce antique (Geneva, 1988); Bremmer, Interpretations of Greek Mythology; Edmunds, L. (ed), Approaches to Greek Myth (Baltimore and London, 1990).
4. The best historical survey now is Graf, Greek Mythology, pp. 9–56.
5. Comes, Natales, Mythologiae (sive explicationum fabularum libri X) (Venice, 1551; 15672, repr. New York, 1976), cf. Montiel, R. M. Iglesias and Moran, C. A. (eds), Natale Conti, Mitología (Murcia, 1988), pp. 7–35 ; Starobinski, J., ‘Fable et mythologie aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles’, in Le remède dans le mal (Paris, 1989), pp. 233-62.
6. Fontenelle: Niderst, A. (ed), B. de Fontenelle. Oeuvres complètes III (Paris, 1989), pp. 197–202 (‘De l’origine des fables’, tr. and introd. by Feldman, B. and Richardson, R. D., The Rise of Modern Mythology (1680-1860), Bloomington and London 1972, pp. 7–18). Fréret: Graf, Greek Mythology, 16f, add Barret-Kriegel, B., Jean Mabillon (Paris, 1988), pp. 163–209 , 277–82 (bibliography).
7. Chiarini, G., ‘Ch.G. Heyne e gli inizi dello studio scientifico della mythologia’, Lares 55 (1989), 317-31; Graf, F., ‘Die Entstehung des Mythosbegriffs bei Christian Gottlob Heyne’, in id. (ed), Mythos in mythenloser Gesellschaft. Das Paradeigma Roms – Colloquium Rauricum III (Stuttgart, 1993), pp. 284-94.
8. Karl M.: Calder, W. M. III et al. (eds), Karl Otfried Müller Reconsidered (Atlanta, 1995). Max M.: Lloyd-Jones, H., Blood for the Ghosts (London, 1982), pp. 155-64; Stocking, G. W. Jr, Victorian Anthropology (New York and London, 1987), pp. 56–62 ; van den Bosch, L. P., ‘Friedrich Max Müller: een Victoriaans geleerde over het onderzoek naar mythen en religie’, Nederlands Theol. Tijdschrift 47 (1993), 186–200 .
9. Cf. Bremmer, , ‘Hermann Usener’, in Briggs, W. W. and Calder, W. M. III (eds), Classical Scholarship. A Biographical Encyclopedia (New York and London, 1990), pp. 462-78; Dieterich, H. and von Gaertringen, F. Hiller, Usener und Wilamowitz. Ein Briefwechsel 1870–1905, revised by Calder, W. M. III (Stuttgart, 1994). Mannhardt: no modern study.
10. Ackerman, R., J. G. Frazer: His Life and Work (Cambridge, 1987); Beard, M., ‘Frazer, Leach and Virgil: The Popularity (and Unpopularity) of The Golden Bough ’, Comp. Stud. in Soc. and Hist. 34 (1992), 203-34.
11. Cf. J. Mejer, ‘Martin P. Nilsson’, in Briggs/Calder, Classical Schohrship, pp. 335–40; Bierl, A. and Calder, W. M. III, ‘Instinct against Proof. The Correspondence between Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff and Martin P. Nilsson on Religionsgeschichte (1920-1930)’, Eranos 89 (1991), 73–99 , repr. in Calder, W. M. III, Further Letters of Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (Hildesheim, 1994).
12. Schlesier, R., ‘Prolegomena to Jane Harrison’s Interpretation of Ancient Greek Religion’, in Calder, W. M. III (ed), The Cambridge Ritualists Reconsidered (Atlanta, 1991), pp. 185–226 ~ Kippenberg, H. and Luchesi, B. (eds), Religionswissenschaft und Kulturkritik (Marburg, 1991), pp. 193–235 (German version); Bremmer, ‘Gerardus van der Leeuw and Jane Ellen Harrison’, ibid., pp. 237–41.
13. Good examples of their work in Gordon, R. (ed), Myth, Religion and Society: Structuralist Essays . . . (Cambridge, 1981), with an informative introduction by R. Buxton (pp. ix-xvii).
14. Martin, R., The Language of Heroes (Ithaca, 1989), pp. 12–42 , esp. 12; see also Adkins, A. H. W., ‘Myth, Philosophy, and Religion in Ancient Greece’, in Reynolds, F. E. and Tracy, D. (eds), Myth and Philosophy (Albany, 1990), pp. 95–130 .
15. Vernant, J.-P., ‘Le mythe au réflechi’, Le temps de la réflexion 1 (1980), 21–25 ; Detienne, M., The Creation of Mythology, 1981 1 (Chicago, 1986); C. R. Philips III, ‘Misconceptualizing Classical Mythology’, in Flower/Toher, Georgica, pp. 142–51; Calame, C., ‘“Mythe” et “rite” en Grèce’, and Illusions de la mythologie (Limoges, 1991).
16. See, respectively, Burkert, Structure and History, p. 23 and ‘Mythos – Begriff, Struktur, Funktionen’, in Graf, Mythos in Mythenloser Gesellschaft, pp. 9–24, esp. 17; my ‘What is a Greek Myth’, in Bremmer, Interpretations, pp. 1–9 (also on differences between myth and other types of traditional tales, such as legends, Sagen and fairy-tales). Note also Graf, Greek Mythology, pp. 1–8; Buxton, Imaginary Greece, pp. 12–17.
17. Cf. Bremmer, ‘What is a Greek Myth?’, pp. 1–3; Burkert, , ‘Typen griechischer Mythen auf dem Hintergrund mykenischer und orientalischer Tradition’, in Musti, D. et al. (eds), La transizione dal Miceneo all’ Alto Arcaismo (Rome, 1991), pp. 527-38.
18. Graf, Greek Mythology, p. 74 (Achilles); Grottanelli, C., ‘Yoked Horses, Twins, and the Powerful Lady: India, Greece, Ireland and Elsewhere’, J. Indo-European Stud. 14 (1986), 125-52 (Helen); Burkert, Structure and History, pp. 78–98 (Heracles).
19. Erichthonius/Erechtheus: R. Parker, ‘Myths of Early Athens’, in Bremmer, Interpretations, pp. 187–214, esp. 194; Kearns, Heroes of Attica, p. 161.
20. Frei, P., ‘Die Bellerophontessage und das Alte Testament’, in Janowski, B. et al. (eds), Religionsgeschichtliche Beziehungen zwischen Kleinasien, Nordsyrien und dem Alten Testament (Freiburg and Göttingen, 1993), pp. 39–65 ; note also Burkert, ‘Oriental and Greek Mythology’, in Bremmer, Interpretations, pp. 10–40.
21. Caduff, C., Antike Sintflutsagen (Göttingen, 1986); Burkert, , ‘Denkformen der Kosmologie im Alten Orient und in Griechenland’, in Münzel, M. (ed), Ursprung (Frankfurt, 1987), pp. 9–18 .
22. I follow Auffarth, Drohende Untergang, pp. 129f and Graf, Greek Mythology, pp. 95f, rather than Burkert, ‘Typen griechischer Mythen’, p. 535.
23. The late date makes it unlikely that Homer on purpose left out the motif, cf. March, J., The Creative Poet (London, 1987), pp. 27–46 ; Bremmer, ‘La plasticité du mythe: Méléagre dans la poésie homérique’, in Calarne, Métamorphoses du mythe, pp. 37–56; Woodford, S. et al., LIMC VI.1 (1992), s.v. Meleager.
24. Burkert, ‘The Making of Homer in the Sixth Century B.C.: Rhapsodes versus Stesichoros’, in Papers on theAmasis Painter, pp. 43–62, esp. 52.
25. Aphrodite: Stesichorus, fr. 223. Hera: Ap. Rhod. 1.14; Apollod. 1.9.16.
26. For Hellenistic times see now Scheer, Mythische Vorväter.
27. Families: Thomas, Oral tradition, pp. 155–95. Athens: R. Parker, ‘Myths of Early Athens’, in Bremmer, Interpretations, pp. 187–214, esp. 206f; Simon, E., LIMC VI. 1 (1992), s.v. Ion. Sparta: Robert, L., Études épigraphiques et philologiques (Paris, 1938), pp. 199f (Kresphontes as a herophoric, typically Messenian name); C. Calarne, ‘Spartan Genealogies’, in Bremmer, Interpretations, pp. 153–86; M. A. Harder, ‘Euripides’ Temenos and Temenidai’, in Hofmann/Harder, Fragmenta dramatica, pp. 117–35.
28. Zeitlin, F., ‘Thebes: Theatre of Self and Society in Athenian Drama’, in Winkler, J. and eadem, (eds), Nothing to do with Dionysos? (Princeton, 1990), pp. 63–96 ; Said, S., ‘Tragic Argos’, in Sommerstein, A. et al. (eds), Tragedy, Comedy and the Polis (Bari, 1993), pp. 167-89; Johnston, S., ‘Crossroads’, ZPE 88 (1991), 217-24.
29. Motte, Prairies et jardins; exemplary, Buxton, R., ‘Imaginary Greek Mountains’, JHS 112 (1992), 1–15 .
30. Detienne, M., The Gardens of Adonis, 1972 1 (Princeton, 19942); R. Buxton, ‘Wolves and Werewolves in Greek Thought’, in Bremmer, Interpretations, pp. 60–79.
31. Inachus: Dowden, Death and the Maiden, pp. 123f; Katalis, S. E., LIMC V. 1 (1990), s.v.; Graf, NK, 104–6 (Acheloos).
32. Good observations towards such a project in Dowden, Uses of Greek Mythology, pp. 121–49; Buxton, Imaginary Greece, pp. 80–113.
33. Oral tradition: Thomas, Oral Tradition, p. 283. Fosterage: Bremmer/Horsfall, Roman Myth, pp. 53–6 (Bremmer).
34. Genre: Seaford, R., ‘The Structural Problems of Marriage in Euripides’, in Powell, A. (ed), Euripides, Women, and Sexuality (London and New York, 1990), pp. 151-76. Father-son: Sourvinou-Inwood, ‘Reading’ Greek Culture, pp. 244–84.
35. Brother-sister: Bremmer, , ‘Why did Medea Kill Her Brother Apsyrtos?’, in Clauss, J. and Johnston, S. (eds), Aeetes’ Daughter. Essays on Medea . . . (Princeton, 1995). Troilus: Kossatz-Deissman, A., LIMC I.1 (1981), s.v. Achilleus, no. 206–388; Wathelet, P., Dictionnaire des Troyens de l’lliade, 2 vls (Liège, 1988), s.v. Troilos.
36. For a detailed historical survey of the various approaches see Versnel, , Inconsistencies 2, pp. 15–88 (~ Edmunds, Approaches, pp. 25–90).
37. See, respectively, Lardinois, A., ‘Greek Myths for Athenian Rituals’, GRBS 33 (1992), 313-27; A. Pariente, ‘Le monument argien des “Sept contra Thebes’”, in Piérart, Polydipsion Argos, pp. 195–229; Graf, NK, 391 (Tarentum). In general: Richardson, N., ‘Innovazione poetica e mutamenti religiosi nell’antica Grecia’, Stud. Or. Class. 33 (1983), pp. 15–27 .
38. Burkert, Orientalizing Revolution, pp. 83–5; add Pomponius Mela 1.64 (tourists); Harvey, P. B., ‘The Death of Mythology: The Case of Joppa’, J. Early Christ. Stud. 2 (1994), 1–14 .
39. Cf. Jameson, M., ‘Perseus, the Hero of Mykenai’, in Hägg, R. and Nordquist, G. (eds), Celebrations of Death and Divinity in the Bronze Age Argolid (Stockholm, 1990), pp. 213-30. Bulls’ masks: Ovid, Met. 10.222-37; Graf, NK, 415f; Hermary, A., Rep. Dept. Antiq. Cyprus 1986, 164-6; id. and O. Masson, ‘Deux vases inscrits du sanctuaire d’Aphrodite à Amathunte’, Bull. Con. Hell. 114 (1990), 187–214. Helmets: Brijder, H., Siana Cups II. The Heidelberg Painter (Amsterdam, 1991), pp. 430-2; see also Graf, NK, 415f (bull warriors). Minotaur: Woodford, S., LIMC VI. 1 (1992), s.v.
40. One may have some qualms about the historic reality of the ambiguity of Versnel’s reconstructed ritual complex, since for Rhodes our information speaks only of a negative ritual and regarding Athens only of a positive one. Is it methodologically permitted to obliterate local differences in this way? Or is the reconstruction valid only for a ‘deep’ structure and, if so, what is then the relationship with the ‘surface’ of the ritual?
41. Versnel, Inconsistencies 2, pp. 88–135 (~ Bremmer, Interpretations, pp. 121–52). Versnel also discusses iconographical representations of a veiled Kronos which, contrary to his suggestion (104f), all post-date the classical period, cf. E. B. Serbeti, LIMC VI. 1 (1992), s.v.
42. See also Buxton, Imaginary Greece, p. 96 (myth/life), pp. 151–5 (myth/ritual).
43. Lemnos: Burkert, Homo necans, pp. 190–6. Pegasus: Frei, ‘Bellerophontessage’, 48f. Migrating myths: Graf, , ‘Das Götterbild aus dem Taurerland’, Antike Welt 10.4 (1979), 33–41 and Greek Mythology, pp. 116f.
44. I have not the space to enter in a discussion of the sociobiological explanations by Burkert, Structure and History, pp. 1–58, and Versnel, Inconsistencies 2, pp. 79–88 (~ Edmunds, Approaches, pp. 62–7) of some myth and ritual complexes, but see the objections of Bremmer/Horsfall, Roman Myth, pp. 29f (Bremmer); Auffarth, Drohende Untergang, pp. 573–82; Bremmer, , ‘Mythe en rite in het oude Griekenland’, Nederlands Theol. Tijdschrift 46 (1992), 265-76; Graf, Greek Mythology, pp. 52f.
45. See now also Gantz, T., Early Greek Myth: a guide to literary and artistic sources, 2 vls (Baltimore and London, 1993).
46. Moret, J.-M., ‘The Earliest Representations of the Infant Herakles and the Snakes’, in Braswell, B. K., A Commentary on Pindar Nemean One (Fribourg, 1992), pp. 83–90 .
47. Neils, J., LIMC VI. 1 (1992), s.v. Iason, no. 30–5. Recently, a small fragment of archaic Argonauta poetry has been published: P. Oxy. 53.3698, mentioning Orpheus, Mopsus, and Aeetes.
48. Note now also Knell, H., Mythos und Polis. Bildprogramme griechischer Bauskulptur (Darmstadt, 1990); Carpenter, T., Art and Myth in Ancient Greece (London, 1991); Shapiro, H., Myth into Art (London, 1994).
49. Shapiro, H., ‘Old and New Heroes: Narrative, Composition, and Subject in Attic Black-Figure’, Class. Ant. 9 (1990), 114-48. Note also the table with changes on the Attic panel amphoras in Scheibler, I., ‘Bild und Gefäss ...’, JDAI 102 (1987), 57–118, esp. 89.
50. Bremmer, , ‘The Old Women of Ancient Greece’, in Blok, J. and Mason, P. (eds), Sexual Asymmetry. Studies in Ancient Society (Amsterdam, 1987), pp. 191–215 , esp. 200f.
51. Cf. A. Henrichs, ‘Three Approaches to Greek Mythography’, in Bremmer, Interpretations, pp. 242–77; Mactoux, M.-M., ‘Panthéon et discours mythologique: le cas d’Apollodore’, Rev. Hist. Rel. 206 (1989), 245-70; Jacob, C., ‘Le savoir des mythographes’, Annales ESC 49 (1994), 419-28.
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