23 April 2024: We are investigating problems with ecommerce on Cambridge Core. We apologise for any inconvenience and hope to have full functionality restored shortly.
We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 02 October 2014
The Janiculum Hill in antiquity was a place of noble villas, military triumphs, ancient burials and Christian martyrdoms, all of which were recorded and interpreted in various ways in the antiquarian maps and literature of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Many of its associations had significance to the Pamphilj family, who bought a modest vigna there in 1630, not long after Giovan Battista Pamphilj (1574–1655) became cardinal. In the fourteen years that separated the purchase of the vigna and the elevation of Cardinal Pamphilj to the papal throne as Innocent X (1644–55) more land was acquired in the area, and the Casino del Bel Respiro, the Pamphilj's palazzo di rappresentanza at the Villa Pamphilj, was eventually built some distance from the original farmhouse, its entrance directly facing the dome of Saint Peter's. The villa played an essential role in constructing a public image for the Pamphilj that was inseparable from their claims to descend from the very founders of Rome, claims that were delineated by Niccolò Angelo Cafferri in his genealogy of the Pamphilj, a work initiated by Cardinal Girolamo Pamphilj (1544–1610) and published in 1662. This paper discusses how Cafferri's genealogy and antiquarian scholarship in Rome contributed to the selection of the Casino's site, design, decoration and iconology.
Il Gianicolo in antico era un luogo di ville nobiliari, trionfi militari, antiche sepolture e martiri cristiani. Tutti questi elementi sono stati registrati e interpretati in molti modi nelle mappe antiquarie e nelle fonti del XVI e XVII secolo. Molte di queste associazioni avevano un significato per la famiglia Pamphilj, che comperò una modesta vigna sul Gianicolo nel 1630, non molto dopo che Giovan Battista Pamphilj (1574–1655) divenne cardinale. Nei quattordici anni che separano l'acquisto della vigna dall'ascensione al soglio pontificio del Cardinal Pamphilj come Innocenzo X (1644–55) vennero acquistati ulteriori terreni nell'area, e fu infine costruito il Casino del Bel Respiro, il palazzo di rappresentanza dei Pamphilj presso la Villa Pamphilj, a una certa distanza dalla originale casa colonica e con l'ingresso direttamente rivolto verso la cupola di San Pietro. La villa giocò un ruolo fondamentale nella costruzione di un'immagine pubblica dei Pamphilj, indissolubilmente legata alla loro pretesa discendenza dai fondatori di Roma, pretesa che venne illustrata da Niccolò Angelo Cafferri nella sua genealogia dei Pamphilj, un lavoro iniziato dal Cardinal Girolamo Pamphilj (1544–1610) e pubblicato nel 1662. Questo articolo tratta di come la genealogia di Cafferri e l'antiquaria erudita a Roma contribuì a selezionare il luogo, la progettazione, la decorazione e l'iconologia del Casino.
1 Amongst others, Benocci, C., ‘L'acquedotto Traiano Paolo elemento vincolante e fattore generatore della Villa Doria Pamphilj’, in Il trionfo dell'acqua (Rome, 1986), 231–5Google Scholar; Benocci, C., ‘Alessandro Algardi, Camillo Pamphilj e la fontana della Venere nella Villa Doria Pamphilj a Roma’, Ricerche di Storia dell'Arte 54 (1994), 69–84Google Scholar; Benocci, C., ‘Alessandro Algardi direttore dei restauri delle sculture nel parco della Villa Doria Pamphilj a Roma’, Xenia Antiqua 4 (1995), 97–118Google Scholar; Benocci, C., Le ville storiche di via Aurelia Antica (Rome, 1995)Google Scholar; Benocci, C., Villa Doria Pamphilj (Rome, 1996)Google Scholar; Benocci, C., ‘Villa Doria Pamphilj a Roma: il giardino dei cedrati come giardino di Venere’, in Tagliolini, A. and Visentini, M. Azzi (eds), Il giardino delle Esperidi (Florence, 1996), 345–56Google Scholar; Benocci, C., ‘La Fortuna di Villa Adriana a Tivoli e della cultura classica nel Seicento: il caso della Villa Doria Pamphilj a Roma’, in Cima, M. and La Rocca, E. (eds), Horti romani (Rome, 1998), 453–68Google Scholar; Benocci, C., ‘Camillo Pamphilj e la grande villa barocca: le componenti culturali’, in Benocci, C. (ed.), Le virtù e i piaceri in villa. Per il nuovo museo comunale della Villa Doria Pamphilj (Milan, 1998), 36–51Google Scholar; Benocci, C., Algardi a Roma: il Casino del Bel Respiro a Villa Doria Pamphilj (Rome, 1999)Google Scholar. Beneš, M., ‘Landowning and the villa in the social geography of the Roman territory, the location of landscapes of the Villa Pamphilj, 1645–70’, in Von Hoffman, A. (ed.), Form, Modernism and History, Essays in Honor of Eduard F. Sekler (Cambridge (MA)/London, 1996), 187–209Google Scholar; Beneš, M., ‘Algardi a Villa Pamphilj’, in Montagu, J. (ed.), Algardi, l'altra faccia del barocco (Rome, 1999), 49–60Google Scholar; Beneš, M., ‘Pastoralism in the Roman Baroque villa and in Claude Lorrain: myths and realities of the Roman Campagna’, in Beneš, M. and Harris, D. (eds), Villas and Gardens in Early Modern Italy and France (Cambridge, 2001), 88–113Google Scholar; Beneš, M., ‘Claude Lorrain's pendant landscapes of 1646–50 for Camillo Pamphilj, nephew of Pope Innocent X. Classicism, architecture, and gardens as contexts for the artist's Roman patronage’, Storia dell'Arte 112 (n.s. 12) (2005), 37–90Google Scholar.
2 Beneš, ‘Landowning and the villa’ (above, n. 1), 194.
3 N.A. Cafferri, ‘Numa Pompilio disceso dalla famiglia Pamphilia di Sparta, in quella città fondata da Pamphilio rè de' Dorici 350 anni prima dell'edificazione di Roma’, in Brusoni, G., Degli allori d'Eurota, poesie diverse all'Eccellentiss. Sig. Principe D. Camillo Pamphilio, etc. (Rome, 1662), 3–8Google Scholar; Scott, J.B., ‘Strumenti di potere: Pietro da Cortona tra Barberini e Pamphilj’, in Bianco, A. Lo (ed.), Pietro da Cortona 1597–1699 (Rome, 1997), 87–98Google Scholar.
4 Vassalli, D. Chiomenti, Donna Olimpia o del nepotismo nel Seicento (Milan, 1979), 22–3Google Scholar, 27 n. 2.
5 Cafferri, ‘Numa Pompilio’ (above, n. 3), 5; Scott, ‘Strumenti di potere’ (above, n. 3), 91. Numa instituted ‘that order of high priests who are called Pontifices, and he himself is said to have been the first of them’; Plutarch's Lives with an English Translation by Bernadotte Perrin I (London/Cambridge (MA), 1959)Google Scholar, book XXII: 2, 379, 381.
6 Scott, ‘Strumenti di potere’ (above, n. 3), 90–1.
7 Iodice, M.G., Il Cardinal Francesco Barberini (unpublished thesis; Rome, 1965)Google Scholar; Merola, A., ‘Francesco Barberini’, in Dizionario biografico degli italiani VI (Rome, 1964), 172–6Google Scholar.
8 During Urban VIII's pontificate Pamphilj was made Patriarch of Antioch, Spanish nunzio and ultimately cardinal; Pastor, L. Freiherr von, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and Other Original Sources, etc., XXX (London, 1957), 14–23Google Scholar, 26; Poncet, O., ‘Innocenzo X’, in Enciclopedia dei papi III (Rome, 2000), 321–35Google Scholar, at pp. 322–3.
9 Poncet, ‘Innocenzo X’ (above, n. 8), 321–2; Merola, ‘Francesco Barberini’ (above, n. 7), 173–4; Bazzoni, A., ‘Il Cardinale Francesco Barberini, Legato in Francia ed in Ispagna nel 1625–1626’, Archivio Storico Italiano 12 (1893), 335–60Google Scholar; Chiomenti Vassalli, Donna Olimpia (above, n. 4), 37.
10 Dempsey, C., ‘Poussin and Egypt’, The Art Bulletin 45 (1963), 109–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. p. 115. For a comprehensive view of the activities of antiquarians in seventeenth-century Rome, see Herklotz, I., Cassiano dal Pozzo und die Archäologie des 17. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1999)Google Scholar.
11 Rietbergen, P.J.A.N., ‘Lucas Holstenius (1596–1661), seventeenth-century scholar, librarian and book-collector. A preliminary note’, Quaerendo 17 (3–4) (1987), 205–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. p. 215.
12 Kircher, A., Obeliscus Pamphilius (Rome, 1650)Google Scholar, which appears in Archivio Doria Pamphilj (henceforth ADP) Archiviolo 106: 348r. Other titles are also listed: Prodomus Coptus sive Aegyptiacus (1636), 350r; Magnes sive De Arte Magnetica (1641), 350v; Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae (1646), 351r. Rowland, I.D., The Ecstatic Journey, Athanasius Kircher in Baroque Rome (Chicago, 2000), 13Google Scholar; Stolzenberg, D. (ed.), The Great Art of Knowing, the Baroque Encyclopedia of Athanasius Kircher (Stanford, 2001)Google Scholar; Buiatti, A., ‘Francesco Angeloni’, in Dizionario biografico degli italiani XIII (Rome, 1961), 241–2Google Scholar; Angeloni, F., La Historia Augusta da Giulio Cesare infino a Costantino il Magno. Illustrata con la verità delle antiche medaglie (Rome, 1641)Google Scholar; Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), 86–103.
13 ADP Archiviolo 198: 311–12; Gijsbers, P.-M., ‘Resurgit Pamphilj in Templo Pamphiliana Domus: Camillo Pamphilj's patronage of the church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale’, Mededelingen van het Nederlands Instituut te Rome 55 (1996), 293–335Google Scholar, esp. p. 294.
14 Tempesta, C., ‘Note sulla committenza Pamphiliana’, in Imago Pietatis 1650, i Pamphilj a San Martino al Cimino (Rome, 1987), 72Google Scholar.
15 He was known for his great learning; Magnuson, T., Rome in the Age of Bernini, 2 vols (Stockholm, 1986)Google Scholar, II, 3.
16 ADP Archiviolo 106: 339–59, 360–94; Rubrichi, V. Vignodelli, Il fondo detto ‘L'Archiviolo’ dell'Archivio Doria Landi Pamphilj in Roma (Rome, 1972), 49Google Scholar. The library was established by Cardinal Gerolamo Pamphilj and enlarged by Innocent X; G.B. Piazza, Trattato … delle pubbliche e private celebri librerie di Roma (1698), cxvi–cxvii, in Romani, V., Biblioteche romane del Sei e Settecento (Bibliografia, bibliologia e biblioteconomia: studi 3) (Rome, 1996)Google Scholar; Russell, S., ‘Giovan Battista Pamphilj (1574–1655) mecenate della pittura di paesaggio come cardinale e come papa’, in Archivi dello sguardo. Origini e momenti della pittura di paesaggio in Italia. Atti del convegno Ferrara, Castello Estense 22–23 ottobre 2004 (Quaderni degli Annali dell'Università di Ferrara, Sezione Storia 4, Le Lettere) (Florence, 2006), 265–84Google Scholar, esp. p. 274, n. 2. The collection includes theological material, biographies, poetry, dictionaries of foreign languages, musical dramas and literary texts, as well as books about art, architecture and iconography, including Giorgio Vasari's and Giovanni Baglione's Lives, architectural treatises by Vitruvius, Sebastiano Serlio and Jacopo Vignola, Annibale Carracci's Diverse figure, and Vincenzo Cartari's Imagini. Because of their publication dates, many of the books were conceivably acquired by Innocent or his uncle Gerolamo; ADP Archiviolo 106: 343r (Cartari), 346v (Vasari and Baglione), 348r (Vitruvius), 349r (Vignola and Serlio), 356v (Carracci).
17 ADP Archiviolo 106: 339r, 339v, 341r, 343r, 344v, 346r, 347v, 348v, 349r, 349v.
18 Original publication dates and subsequent editions are included in brackets (here and in subsequent notes). All folio numbers refer to ADP Archiviolo 106. Commento di Luca Belli … sopra il Convito di Platone (1614), 352v; Virgilio Malvezzi, Discorsi sopra Cornelio Tacito (1622, 1623), 348r; Fortunio Liceti, De Animarum Rationalium Immortalitate Libri Quatuor Aristotelis Opinionem Diligenter Explicantes: Autore Fortunio Liceto (1629), 347v; Justus Lipsius, L. Annaei Senecae Philosophi Opera quae Excstant Omnia (1652), 339r; Giovanni Andrea Anguillara, Metamorfosi d'Ovidio (1559, 1624), 347v, 348r; Annibal Caro, L'Eneide di Virgilio (1581), 348r; Andrea Palladio, I Commentarii di C. Giulio Cesare, con le figure in Rame … (1618), 343r.
19 All folio numbers refer to ADP Archiviolo 106. Calvo's Antiquae Urbis Roma cum Regionibus Simulachrum (1527, 1532, 1556, 1558), 354r; Giovio's Historiarum sui Tempis (340r) published in several parts in 1550–2, 1553, 1561, 1558, 1560, 1581 (and in the vernacular as Delle historie del suo tempo in 1558 and 1560, and finally as Delle istorie in 1581); Gamucci's Le antichità della città di Roma (illustrated by Giovanni Antonio Dosio: 1580, 1588, 1596), 349r; de’ Cavalieri's Antiquarum Statuarum Urbis Romae (1585–94), 341r; Cartari's Imagini degli dei degli antichi (1556, 1571, 1615, 1647), 343r; Arringhi's Roma subterranea (1571, 1651, 1659), 343v; Erizzo's Discorso sopra le medaglie antiche (1559, 1568), 346r; Rouille's Promptuaire des medailles (1553), 346r; Ruscelli's Le imprese illustri con espositioni et discorsi del s.or Ieronimo Ruscelli (1566, 1580–3, 1584), 345v; Golzius's Vivae Omnium Fere Imperatorum Imagines, a C. Iulio Caes. useque ad Carolum V. et Ferdinandum eius Fratrem, etc. (1557), 346r; Mercuriale's De Arte Gymnastica Libri Sex (1569, 1573, 1577, 1587, 1601, 1644), 346v; Du Choul's Discorso della religione antica de Romani (1558), 352r; Doglioni's Del theatro universale de’ prencipi, et di tutte l'historie del mondo (1606), 347v; Panvinio's De Ludis Circensibus Libri II. De Triumphis Liber Unus, quibus Universa Fere Romanorum Veterum Sacra Ritusque Declarantur (1600), 348r; Aleandro's Refutatio Coniecturae Anonymi Scriptoris de Suburbicariis Regionibus et Diocesi Episcopi Romani (1619), 344r; Mascardi's Dell'arte historica d'Agostino Mascardi trattati cinque. Coi sommarii di tutta l'opera estratti dal Sig. Girolamo Marcucci (1636, 1655, 1662, 1674), 343r; Mascardi's Discorsi morali di Agostino Mascardi su la tavola di Cebete Tebano (1627, 1674), 345v; Angeloni, La Historia Augusta (above, n. 12), 346v.
20 Le glorie Pamphiliae, gli eroi dell'antichissima casa Pamphilia, e in particolare il Signor Principe Don Camillo Mecenate del nostro secolo, in Brusoni, Degli allori d'Eurota (above, n. 3), 102–9. Other works compare Innocent with Jupiter, see ADP Archiviolo 115: 217–19.
21 ‘Cadde Roma pagana/Sorse Roma cristiana … Cadde con Roma errante/Sorse con Roma santo …’; Brusoni, Degli allori d'Eurota (above, n. 3), 102.
22 ADP Archiviolo 122: 180–2.
23 Innocentio X. Pontifici Romano Hoc est Maximo e Gente Pamphilia Stemmata Clara et Virtute Suorum Praestanti Haec Fide, Sed Non Voto, Maiora (Rome, 1644)Google Scholar. Books by Tronsarelli are listed in ADP Archiviolo 106: 343v: Costantino (1629), Vittoria Navale (1633, 1643), L'Apollo (1634).
24 Preimesberger, R., ‘Pontifex Romanus per Aeneam Praesignatus’, Römisches Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte 16 (1976), 221–87Google Scholar, esp. p. 252.
25 Rietbergen, ‘Lucas Holstenius’ (above, n. 11), 215.
26 A branch of the family transferred to Rome during the reign of Sixtus IV (1471–84), whose successor, Innocent VIII (1484–92), promoted Andrea Pamphilj (d. 1484) to the position of procuratore fiscale. The name Giovan Battista Pamphilj took as pope in 1644 acknowledged his family's elevation in Roman affairs under Innocent VIII; Pastor, The History of the Popes (above, n. 8), 23.
27 Beneš, ‘Landowning and the villa’ (above, n. 1), 188–9, pointed out that the Pamphilj were not of the top rank according to Amayden's account of Rome's families. The latter were the ancient, titled Roman barons, whose fiefs had been granted by popes since ad 1000. Those whose families had achieved distinction because of their election to the papacy were second to these.
28 Scott, ‘Strumenti di potere’ (above, n. 3), 90–1.
29 Boisclair, M.-N., Gaspard Dughet, sa vie et son oeuvre (1615–1675) (Paris, 1986), 193–201Google Scholar.
30 Livy, Sannazaro and Vergil were all kept in the Pamphilj library. ADP Archiviolo 106: Titi Liviy, Liber XXXIII, 339r; Titi Liviy Historia, 339v; Arcadia del Sannazaro, 348v; Metamorfosi dell'Anguillara, 347v, 348r; Virgiliy Opera, 341r.
31 Russell, S., ‘Rape, ritual and the responsible citizen: the Sala della Storia Romana at Palazzo Pamphilj in Rome’, Storia dell'Arte 118 (n.s. 18) (2007), 57–72Google Scholar.
32 ADP Archiviolo 198: 364; Pastor, The History of the Popes (above, n. 8), 24; Magnuson, Rome in the Age of Bernini (above, n. 15), 12.
33 Beneš, ‘Landowning and the villa’ (above, n. 1), 194–7.
34 ADP Archiviolo 117: 85.
35 Ambrogi, A., ‘Il territorio della Villa Doria Pamphilj’, in B. Palma Venetucci (ed.), Villa Doria Pamphilj, storia della collezione (Rome, 2001), 13–25Google Scholar, esp. p. 13; Cafferri, ‘Numa Pompilius’ (above, n. 3), 3–4, 8.
36 Gijsbers, ‘Resurgit Pamphilj’ (above, n. 13), who noted the connection between the Pamphilj, Numa and the Janiculum, pp. 303–4; Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), 60.
37 Courtright, N.M., Gregory XIII's Tower of the Winds in the Vatican (New York, 1990), 57Google Scholar; Cartari, V., Imagini delli dei degl'antichi (facsimile of 1647 edition; Genoa, 1987), 170Google Scholar. Innocent X's place in this traditional line of succession could, consequently, be claimed even more authoritatively because of the Pamphilj's genealogical pretensions.
38 Plutarch's Lives (above, n. 5), book XXII: 2, 379. Two stone coffins were buried, one to hold his body, the other for the books he had written: when, eventually, they were dug up, the body had mysteriously disappeared; book XXII: 2, 379, 381.
39 ADP Archiviolo 106: 354r. For a reproduction, see Frutaz, A.P., Le piante di Roma II (Rome, 1962)Google Scholar, pianta X, tav. 19.
40 Frutaz, Le piante di Roma II (above, n. 39), pianta XVI, tav. 25 (Ligorio 1553); pianta XVII (5), tav. 31 (Ligorio 1561).
41 Frutaz, Le piante di Roma II (above, n. 39), pianta XXII (6), tav. 43 (Du Pérac); pianta XII, tav. 21 (Marliani); pianta XVI, tav. 25 (Ligorio, 1553); pianta XVII (5), tav. 31 (Ligorio, 1561).
42 Frutaz, Le piante di Roma II (above, n. 39), pianta XXIII (3), tav. 54 (Cartaro); pianta XXVII (1), tav. 60 (Lauro).
43 It was, of course, not a new idea to construct a contemporary villa on an ancient site, and here the Pamphilj were following a well-established custom. At Frascati in the late sixteenth century new villas, occupying similar sites to those of ancient Tusculum, proliferated. See, for example: Ehrlich, T.L., Landscape and Identity in Early Modern Rome: Villa Culture at Frascati in the Borghese Era (Cambridge, 2002)Google Scholar; Tantillo, A. Mignosi (ed.), Villa e paese: dimore nobili del Tuscolo e di Marino: mostra documentaria, Roma, Museo di Palazzo Venezia, marzo–maggio, 1980 (Rome, 1980)Google Scholar.
44 ADP Archiviolo 106: 343v; Bosio, A., Roma sotterranea di Antonio Bosio romano (facsimile of 1635 edition; Rome, 1998), 15Google Scholar, 23. For early Christian aspects of the area, see also F. Catalli, ‘La presenza cristiana lungo la via Aurelia’, in Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), 47–500.
45 Saints Eusebio, Vincenzo, Peregrino and Pontiano; Bosio, Roma sotterranea (above, n. 44), 23, 115.
46 Poncet, ‘Innocenzo X’ (above, n. 8), 323–4.
47 M.G. Barberini, ‘Il classicismo dei Pamphilj: Alessandro Algardi’, in Benocci, Le virtù e i piaceri in villa (above, n. 1), 52–5, esp. p. 52.
48 Benocci, ‘L'acquedotto Traiano Paolo’ (above, n. 1), 232.
49 Losito, M., Pirro Ligorio e il Casino di Paolo IV in Vaticano, l'‘essempio’ delle ‘cose passate’ (Rome, 2000), 17–18Google Scholar. For the Casino, also see Friedlaender, W., Das Kasino Pius des Vierten (Leipzig, 1912)Google Scholar; Smith, G., The Casino of Pius IV (Princeton, 1977)Google Scholar; Borghese, D. (ed.), La Casina di Pio IV in Vaticano (Turin/New York, 2010)Google Scholar.
50 Benocci, ‘L'acquedotto Traiano Paolo’ (above, n. 1).
51 From Cardinal Scipione Borghese, Prefect and Protector of the Congregation of the Deputies of the Pauline Water and Aqueduct; Benocci, ‘L'acquedotto Traiano Paolo’ (above, n. 1), 232.
52 Benocci, ‘L'acquedotto Traiano Paolo’ (above, n. 1), 232.
53 Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), 167–85.
54 Benocci, ‘La Fortuna di Villa Adriana a Tivoli’ (above, n. 1), 453; Beneš, ‘Claude Lorrain's pendant landscapes’ (above, n. 1), 43.
55 Heilmann, C.H., ‘Acqua Paola and the urban planning of Paul V Borghese’, Burlington Magazine 112 (1970), 656–62Google Scholar; Ashby, T., The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome (edited by Richmond, I.A.) (Oxford, 1935), 299–307Google Scholar.
56 Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), lower figure on p. 91.
57 Ashby, The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome (above, n. 55), 1–2.
58 Bruun, C., ‘Frontinus, Pope Paul V and the Acqua Alsietina/Traiana confusion’, Papers of the British School at Rome 69 (2001), 300–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
59 Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), figures on pp. 96–7; Bruun, ‘Frontinus, Pope Paul V’ (above, n. 58), 311.
60 Bruun, ‘Frontinus, Pope Paul V’ (above, n. 58), 309–10, 312.
61 Bruun, ‘Frontinus, Pope Paul V’ (above, n. 58), 301–2; Ashby, The Aqueducts of Ancient Rome (above, n. 55), 183–9.
62 It is worth noting that the original source that assisted Fabretti to identify the Acqua Traiana was a lead pipe stamp recorded by Ligorio but which, like so many of his archaeological records, was dismissed as a forgery in the nineteenth century; Bruun, ‘Frontinus, Pope Paul V’ (above, n. 58), 311–12.
63 Fagiolo, M. and Madonna, M.L., ‘La Roma di Pio IV: la ‘Civitas Pia’, la ‘Salus Medica’, la ‘Custodia Angelica’’, Arte Illustrata 5 (1972), 383–402Google Scholar, esp. p. 384.
64 Throughout Innocent's pontificate a series of concessions of water from the Acqua Paola were made, reaching a total of 37 oncie in July 1650, when Donna Olimpia was granted four oncie; Fea, C., Storia: 1. Delle acque antiche sorgenti in Roma, perdute, e modo di ristabilirle, 2. Dei condotti antico-moderni delle acque, Vergine, Felice, e Paola, e loro autori (Rome, 1832), 149Google Scholar. In 1659, four years after Innocent's death, the villa was still operating on a total of 37 oncie of water, which accommodated new fountains built under Algardi's supervision at the Casino del Bel Respiro: the Venus fountain, the Rustic grotto and the Esedra, as well as two large pools that occupied the Giardino Segreto; Benocci, ‘L'acquedotto Traiano Paolo’ (above, n. 1), 232.
65 Kleiner, F.S., The Arch of Nero in Rome, a Study of the Roman Honorary Arch Before and Under Nero (Rome, 1985), 11Google Scholar.
66 Calza, R., Bonanno, M., Palma, B. and Pensabene, P., Le antichità di Villa Doria Pamphilj (Rome, 1977)Google Scholar; Benocci, ‘Alessandro Algardi direttore dei restauri’ (above, n. 1).
67 New Catholic Encyclopedia XIV (Palatine (IL), c. 1967–79), 312Google Scholar. In 1645 the Dominicans in Antwerp celebrated Innocent as head of the Church Militant in an engraving, De Militante Ecclesia et Triumphante by Sallarts, A. and Iode, P. De: Innocenti X Pontificis Maximi Columba Emens Militans Ecclesia (Antwerp, 1645), 40Google Scholar. Camillo was General of the Church, and also Generale delle Galere, a position that he held until his marriage in 1647; ADP Archiviolo 109: 242; ADP Archiviolo 117: 212.
68 Frutaz, Le piante di Roma II (above, n. 39), pianta XVI, tav. 25 (Ligorio 1553); pianta XVII (5), tav. 31 (Ligorio 1561).
69 Frutaz, Le piante di Roma II (above, n. 39), pianta XXII, tav. 37 (Du Pérac); pianta XXIII (3), tav. 54 (Cartaro); pianta XXVII (1), tav. 60 (Lauro). See Marshall, D.R., ‘Piranesi, Juvarra and the triumphal bridge tradition’, Art Bulletin 85 (2003), 321–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar, for a discussion of the significance of the Via Triumphalis in antiquarian maps.
70 Lauro, G., Antiquae Urbis Splendor: hoc est Praecipua eiusdem Templa, Amphitheatra, Theatra, Circi, Naumachiae, Arcus Triumphales, Mausolea aliaque Sumptuosiora Aedificia, Pompae Item Triumphalis et Colossaearum Imaginum Descriptio / Opera & Industria Iacobi Lauri Romani in aes Incisa atque in Lucem Edita (Rome, 1612)Google Scholar, plate 29; ADP Archiviolo 106: 356r. David Marshall pointed out that the idea of a triumphal bridge was largely a sixteenth-century invention, and that the Via Triumphalis does not appear on any of the Regional Maps or the marble map of Rome; Marshall, ‘Piranesi, Juvarra and the triumphal bridge tradition’ (above, n. 69), 24. However, it was widely believed (as reported by Lauro) that this area of Rome was where generals gathered before a triumph, and that a bridge had existed until the time of Urban V (1362–70); Lauro, Antiquae Urbis Splendor (above), commentary on plate 29; Benocci, Algardi a Roma (above, n. 1), 17.
71 Losito, Pirro Ligorio e il Casino di Paolo IV (above, n. 49), 17.
72 Benocci, Algardi a Roma (above, n. 1), 21–3, fig. 11.
73 Benocci, Algardi a Roma (above, n. 1), 17; Angeloni, La Historia Augusta (above, n. 12), ADP Archiviolo 106: 346v. Joachim Sandrart included several images of coins representing ‘Concordia’ in his Iconologia Deorum (1680), which convey a sense of general, rather than conjugal, harmony, one image showing only the handclasp as two disembodied hands; Sandrart, J. von, Iconologia Deorum, oder Abbildung der Götter, etc. (Frankfurt, 1680)Google Scholar, facing pp. 62, 110.
74 Benocci, Algardi a Roma (above, n. 1), 16–17.
75 Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), 86–101; Lauro, Antiquae Urbis Splendor (above, n. 70).
76 Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), 86–103, esp. figures on p. 92; Benocci, Algardi a Roma (above, n. 1), 43–9.
77 Bellori, G.P., Le vite de’ pittori, scultori e architetti moderni (edited by Borea, E.) (Turin, 1976), 407–9Google Scholar.
Written by the Marchese da Palombara, in Brusoni, Degli allori d'Eurota (above, n. 3), 67. For the significance of Pan in the Sala di Bacco at the Palazzo Pamphilj, see Preimesberger, ‘Pontifex Romanus’ (above, n. 24), 239; Benocci, Algardi a Roma (above, n. 1), 54–6. See Calza et al., Le antichità di Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 66), tav. CCXLIII, figs 444a and 444b for images of the ‘satirello nudo’.
79 Benocci, Algardi a Roma (above, n. 1), 17.
80 Cartari, Imagini delli dei degl'antichi (above, n. 37), 29–30; ADP Archiviolo 106: 343r; Calza et al., Le antichità di Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 66), tav. CCXLIII, fig. 447, Apollo con la cetra.
81 Calza et al., Le antichità di Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 66), tav. CCXLII, figs 441–3.
82 Benocci, ‘Alessandro Algardi, Camillo Pamphilj e la fontana delle Venere’ (above, n. 1); Benocci, Algardi a Roma (above, n. 1), 23; Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), 117–32.
83 Louis Cellauro considered that the Casino of Pius IV was both a nymphaeum and a musaeum. Cellauro, L., ‘The Casino of Pius IV in the Vatican’, Papers of the British School at Rome 63 (1995), 183–214CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
84 Benocci, Algardi a Roma (above, n. 1), 39–41; Beneš, ‘Claude Lorrain's pendant landscapes’ (above, n. 1).
85 Although much of the original statuary has been removed, these two figures, as well as the free-standing sculptures still in situ, can be identified from the Falda-Barrière views of the villa printed c. 1653–9, published c. 1670; see Catalli, F. and Petrecca, M., Villa Pamphilj (Rome, 1992), 12–13Google Scholar.
86 Cartari, Imagini delli dei degl'antichi (above, n. 37), 45.
87 ADP Archiviolo 106: 348r; Pollio, Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, trans. Morgan, M.H. (facsimile of 1914 Harvard University Press edition; New York, 1960), 15Google Scholar.
88 See Raggio, O., ‘Alessandro Algardi e gli stucchi di Villa Pamphilj’, Paragone – Arte 251 (1971), 3–38Google Scholar; Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), 107–14.
89 Calza et al., Le antichità di Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 66), tav. CCXLIII, fig. 445; also tav. XIV, fig. 18a, Ercole (?); tav. XV, fig. 20, Ercole (?); tav. XXI, fig. 29, Eracle; tav. XXXIII, fig. 50, Eracle; tav. LXI, fig. 95, Eros con gli attribuiti di Eracle.
90 Davis, M. Daly, ‘L'Ercole della mula; da Palazzo Maggiore a Palazzo Pitti’, in Boboli 90: atti del convegno internazionale di studi per la salvaguardia e la valorizzazione del Giardino I (Florence, 1991), 623–32Google Scholar, esp. p. 630.
91 For Hercules, circuses and circus basilicas, see E. La Rocca, ‘Le basiliche cristiane ‘a deambulatorio’ e la sopravvivenza del culto eroico’, in Ensoli, S. and Rocca, E. La (eds), Aurea Roma dalla città pagana alla città cristiana (Rome, 2000), 204–20Google Scholar.
92 The figure on the left of the arch is predominantly antique, the other, possibly by Algardi, is contemporary, and has been created to reflect the basic characteristics of the original, as they stand in the same pose, in opposition, on either side of the arch; Calza et al., Le antichità di Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 66), tav. XVIII, cat. 26, p. 52; tav. CCXXXVII, cat. 428, p. 335.
93 G. Mercuriale, De Arte Gymnastica, first published in Venice in 1569, without illustrations; subsequent editions, with illustrations, appeared in 1573, 1577, 1587, 1601 and 1644. The edition referred to in this paper is the Italian translation published in conjunction with the Rome Olympic Games in 1960; Mercuriale, G., Arte ginnastica, trans. Galante, I. (Rome, 1960)Google Scholar, fig. p. 166; ADP Archiviolo 106: 346v. A new edition, with an English translation, was published on the occasion of the 2008 Beijing Olympics: Mercuriale, G., De Arte Gymnastica (The Art of Gymnastics), edited by Pennuto, G., translated by Nutton, V. (Florence, 2008)Google Scholar.
94 The others are ‘la legittima o medica e la viziosa o atletica’; Mercuriale, Arte ginnastica (above, n. 93), 93–7. For Mercuriale and the Villa Pamphilj, see Russell, S., ‘Girolamo Mercuriale's De Arte Gymnastica and papal health at the Villa Pamphilj, Rome’, in Arcangeli, A. and Nutton, V. (eds), Girolamo Mercuriale. Medicina e cultura nell'Europa del Cinquecento. Atti del convegno ‘Girolamo Mercuriale e lo spazio scientifico e culturale del Cinquecento’ (Forlì, 8–11 novembre 2006) (Florence, 2008), 175–89Google Scholar.
95 Mercuriale, Arte ginnastica (above, n. 93), xxv, 13.
96 Galen and the Arab physician Avicenna both recommended discus throwing as proper to good health and a strong physical constitution; Mercuriale, Arte ginnastica (above, n. 93), 162; Russell, ‘Girolamo Mercuriale's De Arte Gymnastica and papal health’ (above, n. 94), 172–3.
97 These included swimming, fishing, sailing, riding, hunting and walking, all of which could take place at the Villa Pamphilj; Mercuriale, Arte ginnastica (above, n. 93), book III, chapter II: Il Passeggio, 177–81; book III, chapter III: Se lo star in piedi sia un esercizio, 181–6; book III, chapter IX: L'equitazione, 217–20; book III, chapter X: La vettazione su veicolo a ruote, 221–4; book III, chapter XIII: La navigazione e la pesca, 232–6; book III, chapter XIV: Il nuoto, 236–40; book III, chapter XV: La caccia, 240–4; Russell, ‘Girolamo Mercuriale's De Arte Gymnastica and papal health’ (above, n. 94), 185–9.
98 Mercuriale described covered walkways ‘such as those that we admire even today in the Vatican Gardens’, which he considered were based on antique models ‘like those that Pirro Ligorio has seen, in the ruins of two villas of Lucullus, La Tuscolana and that on the hill of Posillipo’ as well as ‘those such as the villa of Pliny at Laurentino and in Tuscany’; Mercuriale, Arte ginnastica (above, n. 93), book III, chapter II, 177–9; Russell, ‘Girolamo Mercuriale's De Arte Gymnastica and papal health’ (above, n. 94), 177. For a discussion of the Villa Pamphilj's architecture in the context of sixteenth-century villa design and ancient Roman reconstructions, see Hoffmann, P., Villa Doria Pamphilj (Rome, 1976), 1–27Google Scholar; Benocci, Villa Doria Pamphilj (above, n. 1), 53–154.
