Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-xtgtn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T20:52:39.293Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Women’s Equality and the COVID-19 Caregiving Crisis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 November 2021

Mala Htun Open the ORCID record for Mala Htun [Opens in a new window]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic revealed, but did not create, the caregiving crisis in the United States: for most people, it was already a major ordeal to provide reproductive labor. The caregiving crisis was less visible before the pandemic because it was suffered unequally, in part due to the different positions of American women. Some women paid other women to do care work, women received differing sets of benefits from federal and state governments, and some women got far more support from their employers than did others. Pandemic-induced shocks, including the closure of K–12 schools and childcare centers, and reduced access to domestic workers and elder care workers, seemed to have triggered a closer alignment of perspectives and interests among diverse women. Although women’s demands for support seem to have pushed the Biden administration to propose more expansive family policies, stereotypes and norms that marginalize care work and care workers within families and across the economy also need to change to achieve equality for women.

Type
Reflection
Information
Perspectives on Politics , Volume 20 , Issue 2: Special Issue: Pandemic Politics , June 2022 , pp. 635 - 645
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

Data replication sets are available in Harvard Dataverse at: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/E7CLML

The research was conducted with support from National Science Foundation #1624871, the Andrew Carnegie Corporation, and the Norwegian Research Council #250753.

References

ADVANCE at UNM. 2020. Out of Balance: Faculty Work-Life Pre-Pandemic and during COVID-19. Technical Report. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico.Google Scholar
ADVANCE Program. 2020. Faculty Equity COVID-19: The Problem, the Evidence, and Recommendations. Technical Report. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Ali, Umair, Herbst, Chris M., and Makridis, Christos A.. 2021. “The Impact of COVID-19 on the US Child Care Market: Evidence from Stay-at-Home Orders.” Economics of Education Review 82: 102094. doi: 10.1016/j.econedurev.2021.102094.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alon, Titan M., Doepke, Matthias, Olmstead-Rumsey, Jane, and Tertilt, Michele. 2020. The Impact of COVID-19 on Gender Equality. Working Paper. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.10.3386/w26947CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beach, Scott R., Schulz, Richard, Donovan, Heidi, and Rosland, Ann-Marie. 2021. “Family Caregiving during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” The Gerontologist 61 (5): 650–60.10.1093/geront/gnab049CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, Michelle L., and Fong, Kelvin C. 2021. “Gender Differences in First and Corresponding Authorship in Public Health Research Submissions during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” American Journal of Public Health 111(1): 159–63.10.2105/AJPH.2020.305975CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biden, Joe, and Harris, Kamala. 2020. The Biden Plan for Mobilizing American Talent and Heart to Create a 21st Century Caregiving and Education Workforce. https://joebiden.com/caregiving/, accessed September 29, 2021.Google Scholar
Bingham, Shereen G., and Scherer, Lisa L.. 2001. “The Unexpected Effects of a Sexual Harassment Educational Program.” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 37 (2): 125–53.10.1177/0021886301372001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, Katharina, Croft, Alyssa, De Souza, Lucy, and Schmader, Toni. 2019. “Do People Care if Men Don’t Care about Caring? The Asymmetry in Support for Changing Gender Roles.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 83: 112–31.10.1016/j.jesp.2019.03.013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boushey, Heather, Barrow, Lisa, and Rinz, Kevin. 2021. Supporting Labor Supply in the American Jobs Plan and the American Families Plan. https://www.whitehouse.gov/cea/blog/2021/05/28/supporting-labor-supply-in-the-american-jobs-plan-and-the-american-families-plan/, accessed June 7, 2021.Google Scholar
Brown, Scott, Herr, Jane, Roy, Radha, and Klerman, Jacob Alex. 2020. Employee and Worksite Perspectives of the Family and Medical Leave Act: Results from the 2018 Surveys. Washington, DC: ABT Associates and U.S. Department of Labor.Google Scholar
Bruce, Susan. 2002. “The ‘A Man’ Campaign: Marketing Social Norms to Men to Prevent Sexual Assault.” Working Paper no. 5. Report on Social Norms. East Lansing, MI: National Social Norms Center.Google Scholar
Budig, Michelle J., and England, Paula. 2001. “The Wage Penalty for Motherhood.” American Sociological Review 6 (2): 204–25.10.2307/2657415CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, Daniel, Petts, Richard, and Pepin, Joanna. 2020a. “Changes in Parents’ Domestic Labor during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Unpublished manuscript.10.31235/osf.io/jy8fnCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, Daniel, Petts, Richard, and Pepin, Joanna. 2020b. “Flexplace Work and Partnered Fathers’ Time in Housework and Childcare.” Unpublished manuscript.10.31235/osf.io/jm2yuCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collyer, Sophie, Harris, David, and Wimer, Christopher. 2019. “Left behind: The One-Third of Children in Families Who Earn too Little to Get the Full Child Tax Credit.” Poverty Social Policy Brief 3 (6): 1–6.Google Scholar
Cools, Sara, Fiva, Jon H., and Kirkebøen, Lars J.. 2015. “Causal Effects of Paternity Leave on Children and Parents.” Scandinavian Journal of Economics 117 (3): 801–28.10.1111/sjoe.12113CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Correll, Shelley J., Benard, Stephen, and Paik, In. 2007. “Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?” American Journal of Sociology 112 (5): 1297–338.10.1086/511799CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coury, Sarah, Huang, Jess, Kumar, Ankur, Prince, Sara, Krivkovich, Alexis, and Lee, Lareina. 2020. Women in the Workforce 2020. Technical Report. New York: McKinsey and Company.Google Scholar
deParle, Jason. 2021. “In the Stimulus Bill, a Policy Revolution in Aid for Children.” New York Times, March 13, 2021.Google Scholar
Dobbin, Frank, and Kalev, Alexandra. 2019. “The Promise and Peril of Sexual Harassment Programs.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (25): 12255–60.10.1073/pnas.1818477116CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dobbin, Frank, Schrage, Daniel, and Kalev, Alexandra. 2015. “Rage against the Iron Cage: The Varied Effects of Bureaucratic Personnel Reforms on Diversity.” American Sociological Review 80(5): 1014–44.10.1177/0003122415596416CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dominguez, Melanie Sayuri, Htun, Mala and Jensenius, Francesca. 2018. “Forging Ikumen: On State Efforts to Redefine Masculinity in Japan.” Paper presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Boston, MA, August 28–September 2.Google Scholar
Dua, André, Ellingrud, Kweilin, Lazar, Michael, Luby, Ryan, Petric, Matthew, Ulyett, Alex, and Van Aken, Tucker. 2021. Unequal America: Ten Insights on the State of Economic Opportunity. Technical Report. New York; McKinsey and Company.Google Scholar
Duffy, Mignon. 2005. “Reproducing Labor Inequalities: Challenges for Feminists Conceptualizing Care at the Intersections of Gender, Race, and Class.” Gender & Society 19 (1): 66–82.10.1177/0891243204269499CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duffy, Mignon. 2007. “Doing the Dirty Work: Gender, Race, and Reproductive Labor in Historical Perspective.” Gender & Society 21 (3): 313–36.10.1177/0891243207300764CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ehrenreich, Barbara, and Hochschild, Arlie Russell, eds. 2003. Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Ely, Robin J., and Padavic, Irene. 2020. “What’s Really Holding Women Back? It’s Not What Most People Think.” Harvard Business Review 98 (2): 58–67.Google Scholar
Engel, Arno, Barnett, W. Steven, Anders, Yvonne, and Taguma, Miho. 2015. Early Childhood Education and Care Policy Review: Norway. Technical Report. OECD. https://www.oecd.org/norway/Early-Childhood-Education-and-Care-Policy-Review-Norway.pdf, retrieved September 29. 2021.Google Scholar
England, Paula. 2010. “The Gender Revolution: Uneven and Stalled.” Gender & Society 24 (2): 149–66.10.1177/0891243210361475CrossRefGoogle Scholar
England, Paula, and Folbre, Nancy. 1999. “The Cost of Caring.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 561 (1): 39–51.10.1177/000271629956100103CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estévez-Abe, Margarita, and Hobson, Barbara. 2015. “Outsourcing Domestic (Care) Work: The Politics, Policies, and Political Economy.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 22 (2): 133–46.10.1093/sp/jxv011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Folbre, Nancy. 2008. Valuing Children: Rethinking the Economics of the Family. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gabster, Brooke Peterson, van Daalen, Kim, Dhatt, Roopa, and Barry, Michele. 2020. “Challenges for the Female Academic during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Lancet 395 (10242): 1968–70.10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31412-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia Bedolla, Lisa. 2007. “Intersections of Inequality: Understanding Marginalization and Privilege in the Post-Civil Rights Era.” Politics & Gender 3 (2): 232–48.Google Scholar
Gates, Melinda French. 2020. “How Rethinking Caregiving Could Play a Crucial Role in Restarting the Economy.” Washington Post, May 7, 2020.Google Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., and Rogers, Todd. 2009. “Descriptive Social Norms and Motivation to Vote: Everybody’s Voting and So Should You.” Journal of Politics 71 (1): 178–91.10.1017/S0022381608090117CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glenn, Evelyn Nakano. 1992. “From Servitude to Service Work: Historical Continuities in the Racial Division of Paid Reproductive Labor.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 18 (1): 1–43.10.1086/494777CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glenn, Evelyn Nakano. 2010. Forced to Care: Coercion and Caregiving in America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Goldin, Claudia. 2014. “A Grand Gender Convergence: Its Last Chapter.” American Economic Review 104 (4): 1091–119.10.1257/aer.104.4.1091CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldin, Claudia. 2015. Hours Flexibility and the Gender Gap in Pay. Technical Report. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress.Google Scholar
Goldin, Claudia, and Katz, Lawrence F. 2016. “A Most Egalitarian Profession: Pharmacy and the Evolution of a Family-Friendly Occupation.” Journal of Labor Economics 34 (3): 705–46.10.1086/685505CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gomez-Aguinaga, Barbara, Dominguez, Melanie Sayuri, and Manzano, Sylvia. 2021. “Immigration and Gender as Social Determinants of Mental Health during the COVID-19 Outbreak: The Case of US Latina/os.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18 (11): 6065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gornick, Janet C., and Meyers, Marcia K. 2003. Families that Work: Policies for Reconciling Parenthood and Employment. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Green, Donald P., Wilke, Anna M., and Cooper, Jasper. 2020. “Countering Violence against Women by Encouraging Disclosure: A Mass Media Experiment in Rural Uganda.” Comparative Political Studies 53 (14): 2283–320.10.1177/0010414020912275CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutting, Gary, and Fraser, Nancy. 2015. “A Feminism Where ‘Lean in’ Means Leaning on Others.” New York Times, October 15, 2015.Google Scholar
Hancock, Ange-Marie. 2016. Intersectionality: An Intellectual History. New York: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199370368.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hankivsky, Olena. 2014. “Rethinking Care Ethics: On the Promise and Potential of an Intersectional Analysis.” American Political Science Review 108 (2): 252–64.10.1017/S0003055414000094CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herbst, Chris M. 2017. “Universal Child Care, Maternal Employment, and Children’s Long-Run Outcomes: Evidence from the US Lanham Act of 1940.” Journal of Labor Economics 35 (2): 519–64.10.1086/689478CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirschmann, Nancy J. 2008. “Wed to the Problem? The Place of Men and State in Families.” Good Society 17 (1): 52–55.10.2307/20711282CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hochschild, Arlie, and Machung, Anne. 2012. The Second Shift: Working Families and the Revolution at Home. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala, Contreras, Carlos, Dominguez, Melanie Sayuri, Jensenius, Francesca R., and Tinkler, Justine. 2018. “Effects of Mandatory Sexual Misconduct Training at UNM.” Paper presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Boston, August 30-September 2.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala, and Jensenius, Francesca R.. 2020a. “Comparative Perspectives on the Caregiving Crisis, Welfare States, and Men’s Roles.” APSA Comparative Politics 30 (2): 22–32.Google Scholar
Htun, Mala and Jensenius, Francesca R.. 2020b. “Fighting Violence against Women: Laws, Norms & Challenges Ahead.” Daedalus 149 (1): 144–59.10.1162/daed_a_01779CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, Jess, Krivkovich, Alexis, Rambachan, Ishanaa, and Yee, Lareina. 2021. For Mothers in the Workplace, a Year (and Counting) like No Other. Technical Report. New York: McKinsey and Company.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, Annabelle, Khan, Sarah, and Matfess, Hilary. 2020. “Childcare, Work and Household Labor During a Pandemic: Evidence on Parents’ Preferences in the United States.” Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Irani, Elliane, Niyomyart, Atsadaporn, and Hickman, Ronald L Jr. 2021. “Family Caregivers’ Experiences and Changes in Caregiving Tasks during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Clinical Nursing Research 30 (7): 1088–97.10.1177/10547738211014211CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iversen, Torben. and Rosenbluth, Frances. 2010. Women, Work, and Politics: The Political Economy of Gender Inequality. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Kamenetz, Anya. 2020. “I Was a Screen–Time Expert. Then the Coronavirus Happened.” New York Times, July 27, 2020.Google Scholar
Keohane, Nannerl O. 2020. “Women, Power & Leadership.” Daedalus 149 (1): 236–50.10.1162/daed_a_01785CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kibbe, Melina R. 2020. “Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Manuscript Submissions by Women.” JAMA Surgery 155 (9): 803–4.10.1001/jamasurg.2020.3917CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kotsadam, Andreas, and Finseraas, Henning. 2011. “The State Intervenes in the Battle of the Sexes: Causal Effects of Paternity Leave.” Social Science Research 40 (6): 1611–22.10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.06.011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotsadam, Andreas, and Finseraas, Henning. 2013. “Causal Effects of Parental Leave on Adolescents’ Household Work.” Social Forces 92 (1): 329–51.10.1093/sf/sot044CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krukowski, Rebecca A., Jagsi, Reshma, and Cardel, Michelle I.. 2021. “Academic Productivity Differences by Gender and Child Age in Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics, and Medicine Faculty during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Journal of Women’s Health 30 (3): 341–47.10.1089/jwh.2020.8710CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynch, Julia. 2006. Age in the Welfare State: The Origins of Social Spending on Pensioners, Workers, and Children. New York: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511606922CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maag, Elaine. 2019. Shifting Child Tax Benefits in the TCJA Left Most Families about the Same. Washington, DC: Tax Policy Center.Google Scholar
Malik, Rasheed. 2019. Working Families Are Spending Big Money on Child Care. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress.Google Scholar
Malik, Rasheed, Hamm, Katie, Lee, Won F., Davis, Elizabeth E., and Sojourner, Aaron. 2020. The Coronavirus Will Make Child Care Deserts Worse and Exacerbate Inequality. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress.Google Scholar
Mares, Isabela. 2003. The Politics of Social Risk: Business and Welfare State Development. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Michel, Sonya. 1999. Children’s Interests/Mothers’ Rights: The Shaping of America’s Child Care Policy. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Michel, Sonya A. 2017. “Care and Work-Family Policies.” In Oxford Handbook of US Social Policy. ed. Béland, Daniel, Howard, Christopher, and Morgan, Kimberly J. 491–509. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Michel, Sonya, and Mahon, Rianne. 2002. Child Care Policy at the Crossroads: Gender and Welfare State Restructuring. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Mink, Gwendolyn. 2002. Welfare’s End. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.10.7591/9781501728877CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moravcsik, Andrew. 2015. “Why I Put My Wife’s Career First.” The Atlantic, October 2015.Google Scholar
Morgan, Kimberly J. 2005. “The ‘Production’ of Child Care: How Labor Markets Shape Social Policy and Vice Versa.” Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society 12 (2): 243–63.10.1093/sp/jxi013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Kimberly J. 2006. Working Mothers and the Welfare State: Religion and the Politics of Work-Family Policies in Western Europe and the United States. Stanford: Stanford University Press.10.1515/9781503625983CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myers, Kyle R., Tham, Wei Yang, Yin, Yian, Cohodes, Nina, Thursby, Jerry G., Thursby, Marie C., Schiffer, Peter, Walsh, Joseph T., Lakhani, Karim R., and Wang, Dashun. 2020. “Unequal Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Scientists.” Nature Human Behaviour 4 (9): 880–83.10.1038/s41562-020-0921-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nadasen, Premilla. 2015. Household Workers Unite: The Untold Story of African American Women Who Built a Movement. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Nelson, Carlos Federico Piñeyro. 2020. “Emotions, Organizing, and Collective Identity Building: The Case of the National Domestic Workers Alliance.” PhD diss., New School for Social Research.Google Scholar
New York Times (2021). “The Agony of Pandemic Parenting.” The Daily podcast. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/16/podcasts/the-daily/parenting-covid-pandemic.html.Google Scholar
O’Connor, Julia S., Orloff, Ann Shola, and Shaver, Sheila. 1999. States, Markets, Families: Gender, Liberalism and Social Policy in Australia, Canada, Great Britain, and the United States. New York: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511597114CrossRefGoogle Scholar
OECD. n.d. Net Childcare Costs (Indicator). https://data.oecd.org/benwage/net-childcare-costs.htm, accessed September 29, 2021.Google Scholar
Okin, Susan Moller. 1989. Justice, Gender, and the Family. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Padavic, Irene, Ely, Robin J., and Erin M, Reid. 2020. “Explaining the Persistence of Gender Inequality: The Work–Family Narrative as a Social Defense against the 24/7 Work Culture.” Administrative Science Quarterly 65 (1): 61–111.10.1177/0001839219832310CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paluck, Elizabeth Levy, Ball, Laurie, Poynton, Chloe, and Sieloff, Sarah. 2010. Social Norms Marketing Aimed at Gender Based Violence: A Literature Review and Critical Assessment. New York: International Rescue Committee.Google Scholar
Paluck, Elizabeth Levy, and Shepherd, Hana. 2012. “The Salience of Social Referents: A Field Experiment on Collective Norms and Harassment Behavior in a School Social Network.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 103 (6): 899–915.10.1037/a0030015CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patrick, Stephen W., Henkhaus, Laura E., Zickafoose, Joseph S., Lovell, Kim, Halvorson, Alese, Loch, Sarah, Letterie, Mia, and Davis, Matthew M.. 2020. “Well-Being of Parents and Children during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A National Survey.” Pediatrics 146 (4): e2020016824.10.1542/peds.2020-016824CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petts, Richard J., Carlson, Daniel L.. and Pepin, Joanna R. 2021. “A Gendered Pandemic: Childcare, Homeschooling, and Parents’ Employment during COVID-19.” Gender, Work & Organization 28: 515–34.10.1111/gwao.12614CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinheiro, Luana Simões, de Oliveira Fontoura, Natália, and Pedrosa, Cláudia Mara. 2011. Situação Atual Das Trabalhadoras Domésticas No País (Current Situation of Domestic Workers in the Country). Technical Report. Brasilia: Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada (IPEA).Google Scholar
Remick, Elizabeth. 2021. “Pregnancy Disability and the Path Not Taken in U.S. State Temporary Disability Systems 1942–1949.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, April 14–18.Google Scholar
Rho, Hye Jin, Brown, Hayley, and Fremstad, Shawn. 2020. A Basic Demographic Profile of Workers in Frontline Industries. No. 7. Washington, DC: Center for Economic and Policy Research.Google Scholar
Ridgeway, Cecilia L. 2011. Framed by Gender: How Gender Inequality Persists in the Modern World. New York: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199755776.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romero, Mary. 1998. “Immigration, the Servant Problem, and the Legacy of the Domestic Labor Debate: Where Can You Find Good Help these Days.” University of Miami Law Review 53: 1045.Google Scholar
Russell, Lauren, and Sun, Chuxuan. 2020. “The Effect of Mandatory Child Care Center Closures on Women’s Labor Market Outcomes during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Sainsbury, Diane. 1996. Gender, Equality and Welfare States. New York: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511520921CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2020. “Women’s Underrepresentation in the US Congress.” Daedalus 149 (1): 40–55.10.1162/daed_a_01772CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slaughter, Anne-Marie. 2015. Unfinished Business: Women Men Work Family. New York: Simon &Schuster.Google Scholar
Strolovitch, Dara Z. 2013. “Of Mancessions and Hecoveries: Race, Gender, and the Political Construction of Economic Crises and Recoveries.” Perspectives on Politics 11 (1): 167–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teele, Dawn Langan, Kalla, Joshua, and Rosenbluth, Frances. 2018. “The Ties that Double Bind: Social Roles and Women’s Underrepresentation in Politics.” American Political Science Review 112 (3): 525–41.10.1017/S0003055418000217CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Theodore, Nik, Gutelius, Beth, and Burnham, Linda. 2019. “Workplace Health and Safety Hazards Faced by Informally Employed Domestic Workers in the United States.” Workplace Health & Safety 67 (1): 9–17.10.1177/2165079918785923CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tinkler, Justine E. 2012. “Resisting the Enforcement of Sexual Harassment Law.” Law & Social Inquiry 37 (1): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tinkler, Justine E. 2013. “How Do Sexual Harassment Policies Shape Gender Beliefs? An Exploration of the Moderating Effects of Norm Adherence and Gender.” Social Science Research 42 (5): 1269–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tinkler, Justine, Gremillion, Skylar, and Arthurs, Kira. 2015. “Perceptions of Legitimacy: The Sex of the Legal Messenger and Reactions to Sexual Harassment Training.” Law & Social Inquiry 40 (1): 152–74.10.1111/lsi.12065CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tronto, Joan C. 2002. “The ‘Nanny’ Question in Feminism.” Hypatia 17 (2): 34–51.Google Scholar
UN Women. 2019. Progress of the World’s Women 2019–2020. New York: UN Women.Google Scholar
Van Dyke, Miriam E., Maria, C. B. Mendoza, Li, Wen, Parker, Erin M., Belay, Brook, Davis, Elizabeth M., Quint, Joshua J., Penman-Aguilar, Ana, and Kristie, E. N. Clarke. 2021. “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in COVID-19 Incidence by Age, Sex, and Period among Persons Aged 25 years—16 US Jurisdictions, January 1–December 31, 2020.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 70 (11): 382.10.15585/mmwr.mm7011e1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weldon, S. Laurel. 2008. “Intersectionality.” In Politics, Gender, and Concepts: Theory and Methodology, ed. Goertz, Gary and Mazur, A. G., 193–218. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White House. 2021. Fact Sheet: The American Families Plan. Washington, DC: United States Government.Google Scholar
Young, Iris Marion. 1994. “Gender as Seriality: Thinking about Women as a Social Collective.” Signs 19 (3): 713–38.10.1086/494918CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: Link

Htun Dataset

Dataset

https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/E7CLML
Link