Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-dnltx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-24T13:36:35.830Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Rise of the Written Vernacular: Europe and Eurasia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 October 2020

Walter Cohen
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

When Students of Western European Medieval Literature speak of the rise of the vernacular, they often do not mean what you might think they mean—neither the continued use of Latin as a written vernacular for over five hundred years after the fall of the Roman Empire nor the first texts in Celtic, Germanic, and Semitic languages, from the fourth to the tenth century. They mean something later and geographically narrower—the writing that emerges from the breakup of Latin into distinct regional speech patterns, the Romance languages and literatures, primarily in the territories of modern France, Spain, Italy, and Portugal. Although understanding the rise of Romance-language literature as the rise of vernacular writing misrepresents medieval European literature, it has an important rationale. The twelfth-century literature of what is now France—Old French romance in the north, Occitan (formerly Provençal) lyric in the south—establishes continent-wide norms, thereby giving European literature a coherent set of forms and themes for the first time.

Type
The Changing Profession
Information
PMLA , Volume 126 , Issue 3 , May 2011 , pp. 719 - 729
Copyright
Copyright © Modern Language Association of America, 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Works Cited

Abdel-Malek, Kamal. “Popular Religious Narratives.” Allen and Richards 330–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, J. N. The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC–AD 600. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alford, John A., ed. A Companion to Piers Plowman. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988. Print.Google Scholar
Alkire, Ti, and Rosen, Carol. Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2010. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, Roger. The Arabic Literary Heritage: The Development of Its Genres and Criticism. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998. Print.Google Scholar
Allen, Roger. “The Post-classical Period: Parameters and Preliminaries.” Allen and Richards 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, Roger, and Richards, D. S., eds. Arabic Literature in the Post-classical Period. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, Perry. Lineages of the Absolutist State. London: NLB, 1974. Print.Google Scholar
“An Answer to a Book, Intituled, The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce.” Milton's Contemporary Reputation: An Essay, Together with a Tentative List of Printed Allusions to Milton, 1641–1674, and Facsimile Reproductions of Five Contemporary Pamphlets Written in Answer to Milton.” Milton's Contemporary Reputation: An Essay, Together with a Tentative List of Printed Allusions to Milton, 1641–1674, and Facsimile Reproductions of Five Contemporary Pamphlets Written in Answer to Milton. Milton's Contemporary Reputation: An Essay, Together with a Tentative List of Printed Allusions to Milton, 1641–1674, and Facsimile Reproductions of Five Contemporary Pamphlets Written in Answer to Milton. Columbus: Ohio State UP, 1940. 170–216. Print.Google Scholar
Baldwin, Anna P. “The Historical Context.” Alford 67–86.Google Scholar
Ball, John. “John Ball's Letter to the Peasants of Essex, 1381.” Fourteenth Century Verse and Prose. Ed. Sisam, Kenneth. 1921. Oxford: Clarendon, 1967. 160–61. Print.Google Scholar
Bauer, Thomas. “Arabic Writing.” Daniels and Bright 559–64.Google Scholar
Baugh, Albert C. A History of the English Language. 2nd ed. New York: Appleton, 1963. Print.Google Scholar
Bec, Pierre. Le comte de Poitiers, premier troubadour: À l'aube d'un verbe et d'une érotique. N.p.: Centre d'Études Occitanes, 2004. Print.Google Scholar
Beech, George T. “Troubadour Contacts with Muslim Spain and Knowledge of Arabic: New Evidence concerning William IX of Aquitaine”. Romania 113 (1992–95): 14–42. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birrell, Anne. “Balladry and Popular Song.” Mair, Columbia History 953–63.Google Scholar
Blau, Joshua. A Handbook of Early Middle Arabic. Jerusalem: Max Schloessinger Memorial Foundation, Hebrew U of Jerusalem, 2002. Print.Google Scholar
Boltz, William G. The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System. New Haven: Amer. Oriental Soc., 1994. Print.Google Scholar
Botley, Paul. “Learning Greek in Western Europe, 1476–1516.” Literacy, Education and Manuscript Transmission in Byzantium and Beyond. Ed. Holmes, Catherine and Waring, Judith. Leiden: Brill, 2002. 199–223. Print.Google Scholar
Bright, William. “Kannada and Telugu Writing.” Daniels and Bright 413–19.Google Scholar
Bruckner, Matilda Tomaryn. “Chrétien de Troyes.” The Cambridge Companion to Medieval French Literature. Ed. Gaunt, Simon and Kay, Sarah. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. 79–94. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buturovic, Amila. “Ibn Quzmān.” The Literature of Al-Andalus. Ed. Menocal, María Rosa, Scheindlin, Raymond P., and Sells, Michael. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000. 292–305. Print.Google Scholar
Cachia, Pierre. Arabic Literature: An Overview. London: Routledge, 2002. Print.Google Scholar
Calvet, Louis-Jean. Towards an Ecology of World Languages. Trans. Brown, Andrew. Cambridge: Polity, 2006. Print.Google Scholar
Carter, Richard. The Schismatick Stigmatized. London, 1641. Print.Google Scholar
Cohen, Walter. “Eurasian Fiction”. Global South 1.2 (2007): 100–19. Print.Google Scholar
Comrie, Bernard. Introduction. Comrie, World's Major Languages 1–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Comrie, Bernard. “Languages of Eastern and Southern Europe.” Daniels and Bright 663–89.Google Scholar
Comrie, Bernard. “Slavonic Languages.” Comrie, World's Major Languages 322–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Comrie, Bernard, ed. The World's Major Languages. New York: Oxford UP, 1990. Print.Google Scholar
Corriente, Federico. Árabe andalusí y lenguas romances. Madrid: MAPFRE, 1992. Print.Google Scholar
Corriente, Federico. A Grammatical Sketch of the Spanish Arabic Dialect Bundle. Madrid: Instituto Hispano-Árabe de Cultura, 1977. Print.Google Scholar
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003. Print.Google Scholar
Cubberley, Paul. Russian: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2002. Print.Google Scholar
Cubberley, Paul. “The Slavic Alphabets.” Daniels and Bright 346–55.Google Scholar
Curtius, Ernst Robert. European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages. Trans. Trask, Willard R. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1990. Print.Google Scholar
Cutler, Norman. “Three Moments in the Genealogy of Tamil Literary Culture.” Pollock, Literary Cultures 271–322.Google Scholar
Daniels, Peter T., and Bright, William, eds. The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford UP, 1996. Print.Google Scholar
Defrancis, John. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. Honolulu: U of Hawaii P, 1984. Print.Google Scholar
Dickens, A. G. The German Nation and Martin Luther. London: Arnold, 1974. Print.Google Scholar
Donaldson, E. Talbot. Piers Plowman: The C-Text and Its Poet. Rev. ed. N.p.: Archon, 1966. Print.Google Scholar
Doniger, Wendy. The Hindus: An Alternate History. New York: Penguin, 2009. Print.Google Scholar
Dudbridge, Glen. China's Vernacular Cultures. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996. Print.Google Scholar
Edwards, Thomas[?] A Discoverie of Six Women Preachers. London, 1641. Print.Google Scholar
Farouk-Alli, Aslam, and Mathee, Mohamed Shaid. “The Tombouctou Manuscript Project: Social History Approaches.” Jeppie and Diagne 181–89.Google Scholar
Félix, Bernard. Guillaume le troubadour: Duc d'Aquitaine fastueux et scandaleux. N.p.: Aubéron, 2002. Print.Google Scholar
Finegan, Edward. “English.” Comrie, World's Major Languages 77–109.Google Scholar
Franklin, Simon. “Byzantium and the Origins of Written Culture in Rus.” Literacy, Education and Manuscript Transmission in Byzantium and Beyond. Ed. Holmes, Catherine and Waring, Judith. Leiden: Brill, 2002. 187–97. Print.Google Scholar
Freeman, Rich. “Genre and Society: The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala.” Pollock, Literary Cultures 437–500.Google Scholar
French, J. Milton, ed. The Life Records of John Milton. vol. 2 (1639–51). New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1950. Print.Google Scholar
Frenk Alatorre, Margit. Las jarchas mozárabes y los comienzos de la lírica románica. Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1975. Print.Google Scholar
Gaunt, Simon. Retelling the Tale: An Introduction to Medieval French Literature. London: Duckworth, 2001. Print.Google Scholar
Haidara, Abdel Kader. “The State of Manuscripts in Mali and Efforts to Preserve Them.” Jeppie and Diagne 265–69.Google Scholar
Halkett, John. Milton and the Idea of Matrimony. New Haven: Yale UP, 1970. Print.Google Scholar
Shaogong, Han. A Dictionary of Maqiao. Trans. Lovell, Julia. New York: Dial, 2005. Print.Google Scholar
Hassane, Moulaye. “Ajami in Africa: The Use of Arabic Script in the Transcription of African Languages.” Jeppie and Diagne 109–21.Google Scholar
Heath, Peter. “Other Sīras and Popular Narratives.” Allen and Richards 319–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, Christopher. Milton and the English Revolution. New York: Viking, 1977. Print.Google Scholar
Hill, Christopher. The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975. Print.Google Scholar
Hourani, Albert. A History of the Arab Peoples. Cambridge: Belknap–Harvard UP, 1991. Print.Google Scholar
Howlett, David R. The English Origins of Old French Literature. Dublin: Four Courts, 1996. Print.Google Scholar
Hudson, Anne. “The Legacy of Piers Plowman.” Epilogue. Alford 251–66.Google Scholar
Hunwick, John O., and Boye, Alida Jay. The Hidden Treasures of Timbuktu: Rediscovering Africa's Literary Culture. New York: Thames, 2008. Print.Google Scholar
Janson, Tore. “The Vowel Systems of Late Latin.” Latin vulgaire—latin tardif: Actes du VIIIe colloque international sur le latin vulgaire et tardif: Oxford, 6–9 septembre 2006. Ed. Wright, Roger. Hildesheim: Olms, 2008. 345–50. Print.Google Scholar
Jeppie, Shamil, and Diagne, Souleymane Bachir, eds. The Meanings of Timbuktu. Cape Town: HSRC, 2008. Print.Google Scholar
Kaviraj, Sudipta. “The Two Histories of Literary Culture in Bengal.” Pollock, Literary Cultures 503–66.Google Scholar
Kaye, Alan S. “Adaptations of Arabic Script.” Daniels and Bright 743–64.Google Scholar
Kaye, Alan S. “Arabic.” Comrie, World's Major Languages 664–85.Google Scholar
Keay, John. India: A History. New York: Grove, 2000. Print.Google Scholar
Kennedy, H. N. “The ‘Abbasid Caliphate: A Historical Introduction.” ‘Abbasid Belles-Lettres. Ed. Ashtiany, Julia et al. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1990. 1–15. Print.Google Scholar
Kruk, Remke. “Sīrat 'Antar ibn Shaddād.” Allen and Richards 292–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kulke, Hermann, and Rothermund, Dietmar. A History of India. 4th ed. London: Routledge, 2004. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Langland, William. Piers Plowman: An Edition of the C-Text. Ed. Pearsall, Derek. Berkeley: U of California P, 1978. Print.Google Scholar
Langland, William. The Vision of Piers Plowman: A Complete Edition of the B-Text. Ed. Schmidt, A. V. C. Rev. ed. London: Dent, 1982. Print.Google Scholar
Larkin, Margaret. “Popular Poetry in the Post-classical Period, 1150–1850.” Allen and Richards 191–242.Google Scholar
Leupin, Alexandre. “1181?: The Grail.” A New History of French Literature. Ed. Hollier, Denis et al. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1989. 56–61. Print.Google Scholar
Li, Charles N., and Thompson, Sandra A. “Chinese.” Comrie, World's Major Languages 811–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindsay, Jack. The Troubadours and Their World of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. London: Muller, 1976. Print.Google Scholar
López-Morillas, Consuelo. “Language.” The Literature of Al-Andalus. Ed. Menocal, María Rosa, Scheindlin, Raymond P., and Sells, Michael. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000. 33–59. Print.Google Scholar
Lupack, Alan. The Oxford Guide to Arthurian Literature and Legend. New York: Oxford UP, 2005. Print.Google Scholar
Luther, Martin. “Admonition to Peace: A Reply to the ‘Twelve Articles’ of the Peasants in Swabia.” Luther, Christian Society 17–43.Google Scholar
Luther, Martin. “Against the Robbing and Murdering Horde of Peasants.” Luther, Christian Society 49–55.Google Scholar
Luther, Martin. The Christian Society. vol. 3. Ed. Schultz, Robert C. Philadephia: Fortress, 1967. Print. Vol. 46 of Luther's Works. Lehmann, Helmut T., gen. ed.Google Scholar
Luther, Martin. Letters. vol. 2. Ed. and trans. Krodel, Gottfried G. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1972. Print. Vol. 49 of Luther's Works. Lehmann, Helmut T., gen. ed.Google Scholar
Luther, Martin. “An Open Letter on the Harsh Book against the Peasants.” Luther, Christian Society 63–85.Google Scholar
Luther, Martin. Table Talk. Ed. and trans. Tappert, Theodore G. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1967. Print. Vol. 54 of Luther's Works. Lehmann, Helmut T., gen. ed.Google Scholar
MacKenzie, D. N. “Pashto.” Comrie, World's Major Languages 547–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mair, Victor, ed. The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia UP, 2001. Print.Google Scholar
Mair, Victor, ed. “Language and Script.” Mair, Columbia History 19–57.Google Scholar
Mair, Victor, ed. “The Origins and Impact of Literati Culture.” Introduction. Mair, Columbia History 1–15.Google Scholar
Mair, Victor, ed. Painting and Performance: Chinese Picture Recitation and Its Indian Genesis. Honolulu: U of Hawaii P, 1988. Print.Google Scholar
Mair, Victor, ed. T'ang Transformation Texts: A Study of the Buddhist Contribution to the Rise of Vernacular Fiction and Drama in China. Cambridge: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard U, 1989. Print.Google Scholar
McGregor, Stuart. “The Progress of Hindi, Part 1: The Development of a Transregional Idiom.” Pollock, Literary Cultures 912–57.Google Scholar
McLaren, Anne. “The Oral-Formulaic Tradition.” Mair, Columbia History 989–1014.Google Scholar
McWhorter, John H. The Power of Babel: A Natural History of Language. New York: Henry Holt, 2001. Print.Google Scholar
Menocal, María Rosa. The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History: A Forgotten History. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1987. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Middleton, Ann. “The Critical Heritage.” Introduction. Alford 1–25.Google Scholar
Middleton, Ann. “Piers Plowman”. A Manual of the Writings in Middle English, 1050–1500. vol. 7. Ed. Hartung, Albert E. New Haven: Connecticut Acad. of Arts and Sciences, 1988. 2212–31. Print.Google Scholar
Milton, John. Areopagitica. Complete Poems and Major Prose. Ed. Hughes, Merritt Y. New York: Odyssey, 1957. 716–49. Print.Google Scholar
Milton, John. Colasterion. Milton, Complete Prose Works 2 (1643–48): 721–58.Google Scholar
Milton, John. Complete Prose Works of John Milton. Ed. Bush, Douglas et al. 8 vols. New Haven: Yale UP, 1953–82. Print.Google Scholar
Milton, John. The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce. Milton, Complete Prose Works 2 (1643–48): 220–356.Google Scholar
Milton, John. The Judgement of Martin Bucer. Milton, Complete Prose Works 2 (1643–48): 421–79.Google Scholar
Milton, John. “Letter to Leo van Aitzema.” 5 Feb. 1655. The Life Records of John Milton. Ed. French, J. Milton. Vol. 4 (1655–69). New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1956. 16–17. Print.Google Scholar
Milton, John. A Second Defense of the English People. Milton, Complete Prose Works, vol. 4 (1650–55), pt. 1.Google Scholar
Milton, John. “Sonnet 12.” Complete Poems and Major Prose. Ed. Hughes, Merritt Y. New York: Odyssey, 1957. 143–44. Print.Google Scholar
Milton, John. Tetrachordon. Milton, Complete Prose Works 2 (1643–48): 577–718.Google Scholar
Minervini, Laura. “La poesia ispano-araba e la tradizione lirica romanza: Una questione aperta.” La cultura arabo- islamica. Ed. Capaldo, Mario et al. Rome: Salerno, 2003. 705–23. Print. Vol. 2 of Le culture circostanti. Pt. 3 of Lo spazio letterario del medioevo.Google Scholar
Mohanan, K. P. “Malayalam Writing.” Daniels and Bright 420–25.Google Scholar
Nadeau, Jean-Benoît, and Barrow, Julie. The Story of French. New York: St. Martin's, 2004. Print.Google Scholar
Nagaraj, D. R. “Critical Tensions in the History of Kannada Literary Culture.” Pollock, Literary Cultures 323–82.Google Scholar
Norman, Jerry. Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1988. Print.Google Scholar
Nykl, A. R. Hispano-Arabic Poetry and Its Relations with the Old Provençal Troubadours. Baltimore: n.p., 1946. Print.Google Scholar
O'Fahey, R. Séan. “Arabic Literature in the Eastern Half of Africa.” Jeppie and Diagne 333–47.Google Scholar
Oh, Miyoung, et al. “Toward an International Vocabulary for Research on Vernacular Readings of Chinese Texts (Hanwen Xundu).” 101st meeting of the kuntengo gakkai. Tokyo U, Tokyo. 18 Oct. 2009. Address.Google Scholar
Ostler, Nicholas. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. New York: Harper, 2005. Print.Google Scholar
Ould Mohamed Baba, Ahmed-Salem. Estudio dialectológico y lexicológico del refranero andalusí de Abū Yahyà Azzajjālī. Saragossa: U de Zaragoza, Área de Estudios Árabes e Islámicos, 1999. Print.Google Scholar
Owens, Jonathan. Early Arabic Grammatical Theory: Heterogeneity and Standardization. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1990. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owens, Jonathan. The Foundations of Grammar: An Introduction to Medieval Arabic Grammatical Theory. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1988. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owens, Jonathan. A Linguistic History of Arabic. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, William Riley. Milton: A Biography. vol. 1. Oxford: Clarendon, 1968. Print. 2 vols.Google Scholar
Payne, J. R. “Iranian Languages.” Comrie, World's Major Languages 514–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearsall, Derek. Introduction. Langland, Piers Plowman 9–24.Google Scholar
Pollock, Sheldon. Introduction. Pollock, Literary Cultures 1–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollock, Sheldon. The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. Berkeley: U of California P, 2006. Print.Google Scholar
Pollock, Sheldon, ed. Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia. Berkeley: U of California P, 2003. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollock, Sheldon, ed. “Sanskrit Literary Culture from the Inside Out.” Pollock, Literary Cultures 39–130.Google Scholar
Pomeranz, Kenneth. The Great Divide: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2000. Print.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Dwight F. “Popular Prose in the Post-classical Period.” Allen and Richards 245–69.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Dwight F. “Sīrat Banī Hilāl.” Allen and Richards 307–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, Dwight F. “A Thousand and One Nights: A History of the Text and Its Reception.” Allen and Richards 270–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, J. A. G. A History of China. 2nd ed. Houndmills: Palgrave, 2006. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, Stuart, and Cassidy, Frederic G. The Development of Modern English. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice, 1954. Print.Google Scholar
Salomon, Richard G. “Part VI: South Asian Writing Systems.” Daniels and Bright 371–72.Google Scholar
Schmid, Neil. “Tun-huang Literature.” Mair, Columbia History 964–88.Google Scholar
Schmidt, A. V. C. Introduction. Langland, Vision xi–xliii. Schoeler, Gregor. The Genesis of Literature in Islam: From the Aural to the Read. Rev. ed. Trans. Toorawa, Shawkat M. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009. Print.Google Scholar
Shibatani, Masao. “Japanese.” Comrie, World's Major Languages 855–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Janet S. (Shibamoto). “Japanese Writing.” Daniels and Bright 209–17.Google Scholar
Sokolsky, A. A. A History of the Russian Language. Madrid: Taravilla, 1965. Print.Google Scholar
Steever, Sanford A. “Tamil and the Dravidian Languages.” Comrie, World's Major Languages 725–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steever, Sanford A. “Tamil Writing.” Daniels and Bright 426–30.Google Scholar
Sussex, Roland, and Cubberley, Paul. The Slavic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toorawa, Shawkat M. Ibn Abī Tāhir Tayfūr and Arabic Writerly Culture: A Ninth-Century Bookman in Baghdad. London: Routledge, 2005. Print.Google Scholar
Turner, James Grantham. One Flesh: Paradisal Marriage and Sexual Relations in the Age of Milton. Oxford: Clarendon, 1987. Print.Google Scholar
“Twelve Articles.” Luther, Christian Society 8–16.Google Scholar
Vance, Eugene. “1165: Erec et Enide.” A New History of French Literature. Ed. Hollier, Denis et al. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1989. 41–46. Print.Google Scholar
Versteegh, Kees. The Arabic Language. New York: Columbia UP, 1997. Print.Google Scholar
Versteegh, Kees. The Arabic Linguistic Tradition. London: Routledge, 1997. Print. Landmarks in Linguistic Thought 3.Google Scholar
Vincent, Nigel. “Italian.” Comrie, World's Major Languages 279–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vinokur, G. O. The Russian Language: A Brief History. Trans. Forsyth, Mary A. and Forsyth, James. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1971. Print.Google Scholar
Weiss, Michael. Outline of the Historical and Comparative Grammar of Latin. Ann Arbor: Beech Stave, 2009. Print.Google Scholar
White, S. J. “Some New Translations of Kabir: Biographical Note”. Mahfil: Journal of South Asian Literature 1.1 (1963): 19. Print.Google Scholar
Windfuhr, Gernot L. “Persian.” Comrie, World's Major Languages 523–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, R. Bin. China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1997. Print.Google Scholar
Wright, Roger. A Sociophilological Study of Late Latin. Turnhout: Brepols, 2002. Print.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yashaschandra, Sitamshu. “From Hemacandra to Hind Svarāj: Region and Power in Gujarati Literary Culture.” Pollock, Literary Cultures 567–611.Google Scholar
Youbba, Muhammad Ould. “The Ahmed Baba Institute of Higher Islamic Studies and Research.” Jeppie and Diagne 287–301.Google Scholar
Zwartjes, Otto. Love Songs from Al-Andalus: History, Structure and Meaning of the “Kharja.” Leiden: Brill, 1997. Print.Google Scholar