Ten years ago, it was assumed that disease risk prediction and personalised nutrition based on genetic information would now be in widespread use. However, this has not (yet) transpired. The interaction of genetic make-up, diet and health is far more complex and subtle than originally thought. With a few notable exceptions, the impact of identified common genetic variants on phenotype is relatively small and variable in their penetrance. Furthermore, the known variants account for only a fraction of what we believe to be the total genetic contribution to disease risk and heterogeneity in response to environmental change. Here, the question ‘how far have we progressed and are we likely to get there’ (Rimbach and Minihane, 2009) is revisited with regard to the translation of genetic knowledge into public health benefit. It is concluded that progress to date has been modest. It is hoped that recent technological developments allowing the detection of rarer variants and future use of more hypothesis-driven targeted data analysis will reveal most of the currently ‘hidden’ significant genetic variability.

This review describes historical iodine deficiency in the UK, gives current information on dietary sources of iodine and summarises recent evidence of iodine deficiency and its association with child neurodevelopment. Iodine is required for the production of thyroid hormones that are needed for brain development, particularly during pregnancy. Iodine deficiency is a leading cause of preventable brain damage worldwide and is associated with impaired cognitive function. Despite a global focus on the elimination of iodine deficiency, iodine is a largely overlooked nutrient in the UK, a situation we have endeavoured to address through a series of studies. Although the UK has been considered iodine-sufficient for many years, there is now concern that iodine deficiency may be prevalent, particularly in pregnant women and women of childbearing age; indeed we found mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency in pregnant women in Surrey. As the major dietary source of iodine in the UK is milk and dairy produce, it is relevant to note that we have found the iodine concentration of organic milk to be over 40% lower than that of conventional milk. In contrast to many countries, iodised table salt is unlikely to contribute to UK iodine intake as we have shown that its availability is low in grocery stores. This situation is of concern as the level of UK iodine deficiency is such that it is associated with adverse effects on offspring neurological development; we demonstrated a higher risk of low IQ and poorer reading-accuracy scores in UK children born to mothers who were iodine-deficient during pregnancy. Given our findings and those of others, iodine status in the UK population should be monitored, particularly in vulnerable subgroups such as pregnant women and children.

The efficacy by which dietary interventions influence risk markers of multi-factorial diseases is mainly determined by taking population-based approaches. However, there exists considerable inter-individual variation in response to dietary interventions, and some interventions may benefit certain individuals or population subgroups more than others. This review evaluates the application of nutrigenomic technologies to further the concept of personalised nutrition, as well as the process to take personalised nutrition to the marketplace. The modulation of an individual's response is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Many nutrigenetics studies have attempted to explain variability in responses based on a single or a few genotypes so that a genotype may be used to define personalised dietary advice. It has, however, proven very challenging to define an individual's responsiveness to complex diets based on common genetic variations. In addition, there is a limited understanding of what constitutes an optimal response because we lack key health biomarkers and signatures. In conclusion, advances in nutrigenomics will undoubtedly further the understanding of the complex interplay between genotype, phenotype and environment, which are required to enhance the development of personalised nutrition in the future. At the same time, however, issues relating to consumer acceptance, privacy protection as well as marketing and distribution of personalised products need to be addressed before personalised nutrition can become commercially viable.

A high intake of fruit and vegetables (FV) has been shown to be associated with reduced risk of a number of chronic diseases, including CVD. This review aims to provide an overview of the evidence that increased FV intake reduces risk of CVD, focusing on studies examining total FV intake. This evidence so far available is largely based on prospective cohort studies, with meta-analyses demonstrating an association between increased FV intake and reduced risk of both CHD and stroke. Controlled intervention trials examining either clinical or cardiovascular risk factor endpoints are scarce. However, such trials have shown that an increase in FV consumption can lower blood pressure and also improve microvascular function, both of which are commensurate with a reduced risk of CVD. The effects of increased FV consumption on plasma lipid levels, risk of diabetes and body weight have yet to be firmly established. In conclusion, evidence that FV consumption reduces the risk of CVD is so far largely confined to observational epidemiology, with further intervention studies required.

A high intake of fruit and vegetables (FV) is associated with reduced risk of chronic disease, although the evidence base is mostly observational. Blood biomarkers offer an objective indicator of FV intake, potentially improving estimates of intakes based on traditional methods. A valid biomarker of overall FV intake would be able to confirm population intakes, more precisely evaluate the association between intakes and health outcomes and confirm compliance in FV interventions. Several substances have been proposed as biomarkers of FV intake: vitamin C, the carotenoids and polyphenols. Certain biomarkers are strong predictors of single FV; however, the proposed single biomarkers of FV consumption are only modestly predictive of overall FV consumption. This is likely to be due to the complexity of the FV food group. While accurately measuring FV intake is important in nutrition research, another critical question is: how best can an increase in FV intake be achieved? Increased FV intake has been achieved in efficacy studies using intensive dietary advice. Alternative, less intensive methods for encouraging FV consumption need to be developed and tested for population level intervention. Systematic reviews suggest peer support to be an effective strategy to promote dietary change. This review will describe the evidence for a link between increased FV intake and good health, outline possible novel biomarkers of FV consumption, present the most recently available data on population intake of FV and examine the usefulness of different approaches to encourage increased consumption of FV.

The developmental origins of health and disease hypothesis postulates that exposure to a less than optimal maternal environment during fetal development programmes physiological function, and determines risk of disease in adult life. Much evidence of such programming comes from retrospective epidemiological cohorts, which demonstrate associations between birth anthropometry and non-communicable diseases of adulthood. The assertion that variation in maternal nutrition drives these associations is supported by studies using animal models, which demonstrate that maternal under- or over-nutrition during pregnancy can programme offspring development. Typically, the offspring of animals that are undernourished in pregnancy exhibit a relatively narrow range of physiological phenotypes that includes higher blood pressure, glucose intolerance, renal insufficiency and increased adiposity. The observation that common phenotypes arise from very diverse maternal nutritional insults has led to the proposal that programming is driven by a small number of mechanistic processes. The remodelling of tissues during development as a consequence of maternal nutritional status being signalled by endocrine imbalance or key nutrients limiting processes in the fetus may lead to organs having irreversibly altered structures that may limit their function with ageing. It has been proposed that the maternal diet may impact upon epigenetic marks that determine gene expression in fetal tissues, and this may be an important mechanism connecting maternal nutrient intakes to long-term programming of offspring phenotype. The objective for this review is to provide an overview of the mechanistic basis of fetal programming, demonstrating the critical role of animal models as tools for the investigation of programming phenomena.

Numerous effects of n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA on functional responses of cells involved in inflammation and immunity have been described. Fatty acid-induced modifications in membrane order and in the availability of substrates for eicosanoid synthesis are long-standing mechanisms that are considered important in explaining the effects observed. More recently, effects on signal transduction pathways and on gene expression profiles have been identified. Over the last 10 years or so, significant advances in understanding the mechanisms of action of n-3 fatty acids have been made. These include the identification of new actions of lipid mediators that were already described and of novel interactions among those mediators and the description of an entirely new family of lipid mediators, resolvins and protectins that have anti-inflammatory actions and are critical to the resolution of inflammation. It is also recognised that EPA and DHA can inhibit activation of the prototypical inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB. Recent studies suggest three alternative mechanisms by which n-3 fatty acids might have this effect. Within T-cells, as well as other cells of relevance to immune and inflammatory responses, EPA and DHA act to disrupt very early events involving formation of the structures termed lipid rafts which bring together various proteins to form an effective signalling platform. In summary, recent research has identified a number of new mechanisms of action that help to explain previously identified effects of n-3 fatty acids on inflammation and immunity.

Over the past two centuries human life expectancy has increased by nearly 50 years. Genetic factors account for about one-third of the variation in life expectancy so that most of the inter-individual variation in lifespan is explained by stochastic and environmental factors, including diet. In some model organisms, dietary (energy) restriction is a potent, and highly reproducible, means of increasing lifespan and of reducing the risk of age-related dysfunction although whether this strategy is effective in human subjects is unknown. This is ample evidence that the ageing process is plastic and research demonstrates that ageing is driven by the accumulation of molecular damage, which causes the changes in cell and tissue function that characterise the ageing phenotype. This cellular, tissue and organ damage results in the development of age-related frailty, disabilities and diseases. There are compelling observational data showing links between eating patterns, e.g. the Mediterranean dietary pattern, and ageing. In contrast, there is little empirical evidence that dietary changes can prolong healthy lifespan and there is even less information about the intervention modalities that can produce such sustainable dietary behaviour changes. In conclusion, current research needs include (1) a better understanding of the causal biological pathways linking diet with the ageing trajectory, (2) the development of lifestyle-based interventions, including dietary changes, which are effective in preventing age-related disease and disability and (3) the development of robust markers of healthy ageing, which can be used as surrogate outcome measures in the development and testing of dietary interventions designed to enhance health and well-being long into old age.

Despite strong prospective epidemiology and mechanistic evidence for the benefits of certain micronutrients in preventing CVD, neutral and negative outcomes from secondary intervention trials have undermined the efficacy of supplemental nutrition in preventing CVD. In contrast, evidence for the positive impact of specific diets in CVD prevention, such as the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, has focused attention on the potential benefits of whole diets and specific dietary patterns. These patterns have been scored on the basis of current guidelines for the prevention of CVD, to provide a quantitative evaluation of the relationship between diet and disease. Using this approach, large prospective studies have reported reductions in CVD risk ranging from 10 to 60% in groups whose diets can be variously classified as ‘Healthy’, ‘Prudent’, Mediterranean’ or ‘DASH compliant’. Evaluation of the relationship between dietary score and risk biomarkers has also been informative with respect to underlying mechanisms. However, although this analysis may appear to validate whole-diet approaches to disease prevention, it must be remembered that the classification of dietary scores is based on current understanding of diet–disease relationships, which may be incomplete or erroneous. Of particular concern is the limited number of high-quality intervention studies of whole diets, which include disease endpoints as the primary outcome. The aims of this review are to highlight the limitations of dietary guidelines based on nutrient-specific data, and the persuasive evidence for the benefits of whole dietary patterns on CVD risk. It also makes a plea for more randomised controlled trials, which are designed to support food and whole dietary-based approaches for preventing CVD.