Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-cfpbc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-16T00:15:52.278Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Non-local Source of Irish Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Gold

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 April 2015

Christopher D. Standish ,
Bruno Dhuime ,
Chris J. Hawkesworth  and
Alistair W. G. Pike
Christopher D. Standish
Affiliation:
School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, UK Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BF, UK
Bruno Dhuime
Affiliation:
School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, UK
Chris J. Hawkesworth
Affiliation:
School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, UK Department of Earth Sciences, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9AL, UK Email: C.D.Standish@soton.ac.uk
Alistair W. G. Pike
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BF, UK
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Lead isotope analyses of 50 Irish Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age gold artefacts favour a gold source in southern Ireland. However when combined with major element analysis, the artefacts are not consistent with any Irish gold deposit analysed to date. Understanding the lead isotope signatures of ore deposits within a study region allows informed inferences to be drawn regarding the likelihood that an unanalysed ore deposit was exploited in the past. If an Irish gold source is assumed, then the gold is most likely to have originated from deposits hosted by Old Red Sandstone in the Variscan ore field of south-west Ireland. However, based on our current understanding of mineralisation in the region, this scenario is considered unlikely. A non-Irish source for the gold is therefore preferred – a scenario that may favour cosmologically-driven acquisition, ie, the deliberate procurement of a material from distant or esoteric sources. Available geochemical data, combined with current archaeological evidence, favour the alluvial deposits of south-west Britain as the most likely source of the gold.

Résumé

Une origine non locale pour l’or irlandais du chalcolithique et de l’âge du bronze ancien, de Christopher D. Standish, Bruno Dhuime, Chris J. Hawkesworth, et Alistair W.G. Pike

L’analyse des isotopes du plomb sur 50 objets irlandais du chalcolithique et de l’âge du bronze ancien suggère que l’or dont ils sont composés proviendrait d’Irlande du sud. Toutefois la comparaison des données isotopiques avec les données d’éléments majeurs montre que ces objets ne proviennent d’aucune source identifiée en Irlande à ce jour. La caractérisation fine des signatures isotopiques en plomb des différents gisements présents au sein de la région étudiée a permis de réduire la probabilité qu’un dépôt de minerai non analysé ait pu être exploité dans le passé. Si on suppose une origine locale (c’est à dire irlandaise) pour l’or, celui-ci proviendrait vraisemblablement de gisements d’âge Varisque associés aux formations du Old Red Sandstone et localisés au sud-ouest de l’Irlande. Ce scénario est toutefois considéré comme peu probable d’après les données de minéralisation établies pour cette région. Une source non-irlandaise pour l’or doit alors être envisagée, dans le cas par exemple d’une acquisition poussée par des croyances cosmologiques ou bien ésotériques. Les données géochimiques, associées aux données archéologiques disponibles, suggèrent ainsi que l’or proviendrait de dépôts alluvionnaires localisés au sud-ouest de la Grande-Bretagne.

Zussamenfassung

Ein nicht-lokaler Ursprung des irischen Goldes des Chalkolithikums und der Frühbronzezeit, von Christopher D. Standish, Bruno Dhuime, Chris J. Hawkesworth, und Alistair W. G. Pike

Analysen von Bleiisotopen von 50 Artefakten des irischen Chalkolithikums und der frühen Bronzezeit legen einen Ursprung des Goldes aus dem Süden Irlands nahe. Wenn diese Ergebnisse jedoch mit einer Hauptkomponentenanalyse kombiniert werden, lassen sich die Artefakte mit keiner bis heute untersuchten Goldlagerstätte Irlands in Übereinstimmung bringen. Eine bessere Kenntnis der Signaturen von Bleiisotopen von Erzlagerstätten innerhalb eines bestimmten Untersuchungsgebiets ermöglichen Rückschlüsse in Bezug auf die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass eine noch nicht analysierte Lagerstätte in der Vorgeschichte ausgebeutet worden ist. Falls eine irische Quelle für das Gold der Artefakte angenommen wird, dann ist es am wahrscheinlichsten, dass das Gold aus Lagerstätten im Old Red-Sandstein im variskischen Erzlagergebiet im Südwesten Irlands stammt. Aufgrund unserer heutigen Kenntnis der Mineralisation dieses Gebiets muss dieses Szenario jedoch als unwahrscheinlich betrachtet werden. Eine nicht-irische Quelle des Goldes wird daher als wahrscheinlich angenommen – ein Szenario, das für einen kosmologisch motivierten Erwerb des Metalls sprechen mag, das heißt, dass das Material gezielt aus entfernten oder esoterischen Quellen beschafft wurde. Vorhandene geochemische Daten in Kombination mit vorliegenden archäologischen Kenntnissen sprechen für alluviale Lagerstätten im Südwesten Großbritanniens als der wahrscheinlichsten Quelle des Goldes.

Resumen

Procedencia no local del oro del Calcolítico y Edad del Bronce de Irlanda, por Christopher D. Standish, Bruno Dhuime, Chris J. Hawkesworth, y Alistair W. G. Pike

Los análisis de isótopos de plomo de 50 artefactos de oro del Calcolítico y Bronce Antiguo de Irlanda sugieren una fuente de abastecimiento para el oro situada en el sur de Irlanda. Sin embargo, al combinarlos con análisis de elementos principales, los artefactos no coinciden con ningún depósito de oro irlandés analizado hasta el momento. La comprensión de las signaturas isotópicas del plomo de los yacimientos minerales de una región determinada permite inferir de forma fundada la probabilidad de que un depósito mineral no analizado fuese explotado en el pasado. De asumir una fuente de oro en Irlanda, su origen más probable serían los depósitos de Old Red Sandstone en el distrito varisco del suroeste de Irlanda. Sin embargo, basándonos en nuestro conocimiento actual de la mineralogía de la región, este escenario es considerado improbable. Nos decantamos, por tanto, por un origen no irlandés para el oro -un escenario que favorecería la adquisición por motivos cosmológicos, es decir, el abastecimiento deliberado de un material procedente de fuentes lejanas o esotéricas. Los datos geoquímicos disponibles, combinados con la evidencia arqueológica disponible en la actualidad, señalan los depósitos aluviales del suroeste de Inglaterra como la zona de abastecimiento más probable para el oro.

Keywords

ChalcolithicEarly Bronze AgegoldIrelandsourcelead isotopes
Type
Articles
Information
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society , Volume 81 , December 2015 , pp. 149 - 177
Copyright
© The Prehistoric Society 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Albarède, F., Desaulty, A.-M. & Blichert-Toft, J. 2012. A geological perspective on the use of Pb isotopes in archaeometry. Archaeometry 54, 853–867 Google Scholar
Arias, D., Corretgé, L.G., Suárez, O., Villa, L., Cuesta, A. & Gallastegui, G. 1996. Lead and sulfur isotope compositions of the Ibias gold vein system (NW Spain): genetic implications. Economic Geology 91, 1292–1297 Google Scholar
Armbruster, B. 2013. Gold and goldworking of the Bronze Age. In A. Harding & H. Fokkens (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age, 454–468. Oxford: Oxford University Press Google Scholar
Armstrong, E.C.R. 1933. Catalogue of Irish Gold Ornaments in the Collection of the Royal Irish Academy, 2 edn. Dublin: The Stationery Office Google Scholar
Arribas, A. & Tosdal, R.M. 1994. Isotopic composition of Pb in ore deposits of the Betic Cordillera, Spain: origin and relationship to other European deposits. Economic Geology 80, 1074–1093 Google Scholar
Baron, S., Tămaş, C.G. & Le Carlier, C. 2014. How mineralogy and geochemistry can improve the significance of Pb isotopes in metal provenance studies. Archaeometry 56, 665–680 Google Scholar
Beck, C. & Shennan, S. 1991. Amber in Prehistoric Britain. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Bendall, C., Wigg-Wolf, D., Lahaye, Y., Von Kaenel, H.M. & Brey, G.P. 2009. Detecting changes of Celtic gold sources through the application of trace element and Pb isotope laser ablation analysis of Celtic gold coins. Archaeometry 51, 598–625 Google Scholar
Betz, O. 1995. Considerations of the real and and symbolic value of gold. In G. Morteani & J. Northover (eds), Prehistoric Gold in Europe: Mines, Metallurgy and Manufacture, 19–28. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers Google Scholar
Bray, P. 2012. Before 29Cu became Copper: tracing the recognition and invention of metalworking in Britain and Ireland during the 3rd millennium bc . In M. Allen, J. Gardiner & J.A. Sheridan (eds), Is there a British Chalcolithic? People, Place and Polity in the Late 3rd Millennium, 54–68. Oxford: Prehistoric Society Research Papers 4/Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Brill, R.H. & Wampler, J.M. 1965. Isotope studies of ancient lead. American Journal of Archaeology 69, 165–166 Google Scholar
Brindley, A. 2007. The Dating of Food Vessels and Urns in Ireland. Bronze Age Studies 7. Galway: Department of Archaeology, National University of Ireland, Galway Google Scholar
Budd, P., Gale, D., Ixer, R.A.F. & Thomas, R.G. 1994. Tin sources for prehistoric bronze production in Ireland. Antiquity 68, 518–524 Google Scholar
Burgess, C. 1979. The background of early metalworking in Ireland and Britain. In M. Ryan (ed.), The Origins of Metallurgy in Atlantic Europe, 207–247. Dublin: Stationery Office Google Scholar
Burnham, B.C. 1997. Roman mining at Dolaucothi: The implications of the 1991–3 excavations near the Carreg Pumsaint. Britannia 28, 325–336 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cahill, M. 2005. Roll your own lunula. In T. Condit & C. Corlett (eds), Above and Beyond: essays in memory of Leo Swan, 53–61. Bray: Wordwell Google Scholar
Cahill, M. 2006. John Windele's golden legacy – prehistoric and later gold ornaments from Co. Cork and Co. Waterford. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 106C, 219–337 Google Scholar
Camm, G.S. 1995. Gold in the Counties of Cornwall and Devon. St Austell: Cornish Hillside Publications Google Scholar
Carlin, N. & Brück, J. 2012. Searching for the Chalcolithic: continuity and change in the Irish Final Neolithic/Early Bronze Age. In M. Allen, J. Gardiner & J.A. Sheridan (eds), Is there a British Chalcolithic? People, Place and Polity in the Late 3rd Millennium, 193–210. Oxford: Prehistoric Society Research Papers 4/Oxbow Books CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Case, H. 1966. Were Beaker-people the first metallurgists in Ireland? Palaeohistoria 12, 141–177 Google Scholar
Case, H. 1977. An early accession to the Ashmolean Museum. In V. Markotic (ed.), Ancient Europe and the Mediterranean, 18–34. Warminster: Aris & Phillips Google Scholar
Case, H. 1995. Irish Beakers in their European context. In J. Waddell & E. Shee Twohig (eds), Ireland in the Bronze Age, 14–29. Dublin: Stationery Office Google Scholar
Cattin, F., Guénette-Beck, B., Besse, M. & Serneels, V. 2009. Lead isotopes and archaeometallurgy. Archaeological & Anthropological Sciences 1, 137–148 Google Scholar
Chapman, J. 2008. Approaches to trade and exchange in earlier prehistory (Late Mesolithic–Early Bronze Age). In A. Jones (ed.), Prehistoric Europe: theory and practice, 333–355. Oxford: Blackwell Google Scholar
Chapman, R.J., Leake, R.C. & Moles, N.R. 2000a. The use of microchemical analysis of alluvial gold grains in mineral exploration: experiences in Britain and Ireland. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 71, 241–268 Google Scholar
Chapman, R.J., Leake, R.C., Moles, N.R., Earls, G., Cooper, C., Harrington, K. & Berzins, R. 2000b. The application of microchemical analysis of alluvial gold grains to the understanding of complex local and regional gold mineralization: A case study in the Irish and Scottish caledonides. Economic Geology 95, 1753–1773 Google Scholar
Chapman, R.J., Leake, R.C., Warner, R.A, Cahill, M.C., Moles, N.R., Shell, C.A. & Taylor, J.J. 2006. Microchemical characterisation of natural gold and artefact gold as a tool for provenancing prehistoric gold artefacts: a case study in Ireland. Applied Geochemistry 21, 904–918 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, R.J., Moles, N.R., Warner, R.A & Cahill, M.C. 2012. The hypothesis of the Mournes and Early Bronze Age gold. Archaeology Ireland 26 (2), 52 Google Scholar
Christie, P.M. 1986. Cornwall in the Bronze Age. Cornish Archaeology 25, 81–110 Google Scholar
Clarke, D.V., Cowie, T.G. & Foxon, A. 1985. Symbols of Power at the Time of Stonehenge. Edinburgh: HMSO Google Scholar
Colman, T.B. & Cooper, D.C. 2000. Exploration for Metalliferous and Related Minerals in Britain: a guide. DTI Minerals Programme Publication No. 1.Google Scholar
Cowman, D. & Reilly, T.A. 1988. The Abandoned Mines of West Carbery: promoters, adventurers and miners. Dublin: Geological Survey of Ireland Google Scholar
Craddock, P.T. & Craddock, B.R. 1996. The beginnings of metallurgy in south-west Britain: hypothesis and evidence. Mining History 13, 52–63 Google Scholar
Cunliffe, B. 2013. Britain Begins. Oxford: Oxford University Press Google Scholar
Curti, E. 1987. Lead and oxygen isotope evidence for the origin of the Monte Rosa gold lode deposits (Western Alps, Italy): a comparison with Archean lode deposits. Economic Geology 82, 2115–2140 Google Scholar
Desaulty, A.-M., Telouk, P., Albalat, E. & Albarède, F. 2011. Isotopic Ag-Cu-Pb record of silver circulation through 16th-18th century Spain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, 9002–9007 Google Scholar
Ehser, A., Borg, G. & Pernicka, E. 2011. Provenance of the gold of the Early Bronze Age Nebra Sky Disk, central Germany: geochemical characterization of natural gold from Cornwall. European Journal of Mineralogy 23, 895–910 Google Scholar
Eogan, G. 1994. The Accomplished Art: gold and gold-working in Britain and Ireland during the Bronze Age (c. 2300–650 BC). Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Faure, G. & Mensing, T. M. 2005. Isotopes: principles and applications, 3rd ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Google Scholar
Gloaguen, E., Branquet, Y., Boulvais, P., Moëlo, Y., Chauvel, J.J., Chiappero, P.J. & Marcoux, E. 2007. Palaeozoic oolitic ironstone of the French Armorican Massif: a chemical and structural trap for orogenic base metal–As–Sb–Au mineralisation during Hercynian strike-slip deformation. Mineralium Deposita 42, 399–422 Google Scholar
Grögler, N., Geiss, J., Grünenfelder, M. & Houtermans, F.G. 1966. Isotopenuntersuchungen zur Bestimmung der Herkunft römischer Bleirohre und Bleibarren. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung 21a, 1167–1172 Google Scholar
Harbison, P. 1971. Hartmann's gold analyses: a comment. The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 101, 159–160 Google Scholar
Harding, A.F. 2000. European Societies in the Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Google Scholar
Hartmann, A. 1970. Prähistoriche Goldfunde aus Europa: Spektralanalytische Untersuchungen und deren Auswertung. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag Google Scholar
Hartmann, A. 1982. Prähistoriche Goldfunde aus Europa II: Spektralanalytische Untersuchungen und deren Auswertung. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag Google Scholar
Helms, M.W. 1988. Ulysses’ Sail: an ethnographic odyssey of power, knowledge, and geographical distance. Princetown: Princetown University Press Google Scholar
Helms, M.W. 1993. Craft and the Kingly Ideal: art, trade, and power. Austin: University of Texas Press Google Scholar
Horner, J., Neubauer, F., Paar, W.H., Hansmann, W., Koeppel, V. & Robl, K. 1997. Structure, mineralogy, and Pb isotopic composition of the As-Au-Ag deposit Rotgülden, Eastern Alps (Austria): significance for formation of epigenetic ore deposits within metamorphic domes. Mineralium Deposita 32, 555–568 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, A.M. & Quinnell, H. 2011. The Neolithic and Bronze Age in Cornwall, c.4000 cal BC to c.1000 cal BC: an overview of recent developments. Cornish Archaeology 50, 197–229 Google Scholar
Jones, A.M. & Quinnell, H. 2013. Daggers in the West: Early Bronze Age daggers and knives in the South-West Peninsula. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 79, 165–191 Google Scholar
Jones, A.M., Taylor, S. & Sturgess, J. 2012. A Beaker structure and other discoveries along the Sennen to Porthcurno South West Water pipeline. Cornish Archaeology 51, 1–67 Google Scholar
Kane, R. 1844. The industrial resources of Ireland. Dublin: Hodges and Smith Google Scholar
Kelly, E. & Cahill, M. 2010. Safe secrets 1 – an early Bronze Age detective story from County Roscommon. Archaeology Ireland 24 (2), 5–6 Google Scholar
Kinnaird, J.A., Ixer, R.A., Barreiro, B. & Nex, P.A.M. 2002. Contrasting sources for lead in Cu-polymetallic and Zn-Pb mineralisation in Ireland: constraints from lead isotopes. Mineralium Deposita 37, 495–511 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
La Niece, S. 2009. Gold. London: The British Museum Press Google Scholar
La Niece, S. 2011. Examination and analysis of the gold ornaments and comparative primary Beaker goldwork. In A. Fitzpatrick, The Amesbury Archer and the Boscombe Bowmen: Bell Beaker burials at Boscombe Down, Amesbury, Wiltshire, 138–140. Salisbury: Wessex Archaeology Ltd Google Scholar
Le Guen, M., Lescuyer, J.L. & Marcoux, E. 1992. Lead-isotope evidence for a Hercynian origin of the Salsigne gold deposit (Southern Massif Central, France). Mineralium Deposita 27, 129–136 Google Scholar
LeHuray, A.P., Caulfield, J.B.D., Rye, D.M. & Dixon, P.R. 1987. Basement controls on sediment-hosted Zn-Pb deposits: a Pb isotope study of Carboniferous mineralization in central Ireland. Economic Geology 82, 1695–1709 Google Scholar
Marcoux, E. 1998. Lead isotope systematics of the giant massive sulphide deposits in the Iberian Pyrite Belt. Mineralium Deposita 33, 45–58 Google Scholar
Mattingly, J., Marley, J. & Jones, A.M. 2009. Five gold rings? Early Bronze Age gold lunulae from Cornwall. Royal Institution of Cornwall Journal, 95–114 Google Scholar
McArdle, P., Morris, J.H. & Gardiner, P.R.R. 1987. Gold in Ireland: the potential for mineralization. Geological Survey of Ireland, Report Series RS 87/1. Mineral ResourcesGoogle Scholar
Meighan, I.G. 2011. The sourcing of Irish Bronze Age gold. Archaeology Ireland 25 (4), 31–32 Google Scholar
Miles, H. 1975. Barrows on the St Austell granite. Cornish Archaeology 14, 5–81 Google Scholar
Moles, N.R., Chapman, R.J. & Warner, R.B. 2013. The significance of copper concentrations in natural gold alloy for reconnaissance exploration and understanding gold-depositing hydrothermal systems. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 13, 115–130 Google Scholar
Moloney, C. 2011. A Wessex-type gold bead or button cover from Tullamore, County Offaly. PAST: the newsletter of the Prehistoric Society 69, 1–2 Google Scholar
Muhly, J.D. 1985. Sources of tin and the beginnings of bronze metallurgy. American Journal of Archaeology 89, 275–291 Google Scholar
Needham, S.P. 2000a. Power pulses across a cultural divide: cosmologically driven acquisition between Armorica and Wessex. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 66, 151–207 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Needham, S. 2000b. The development of embossed goldwork in Bronze Age Europe. Antiquaries Journal 80, 27–65 Google Scholar
Needham, S. 2002. Analytical implications for Beaker metallurgy in North-West Europe. In M. Bartelheim, E. Pernicka & R. Krause (eds), Anfänge der Metallurgie in der Alten Welt, 99–133. Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf Google Scholar
Needham, S. 2011. Basket-shaped ornaments and primary Beaker goldwork. In A. Fitzpatrick, The Amesbury Archer and the Boscombe Bowmen: Bell Beaker burials at Boscombe Down, Amesbury, Wiltshire. 131–138. Salisbury: Wessex Archaeology Ltd Google Scholar
Needham, S. 2012a. Case and place for the British Chalcolithic. In M. Allen, J. Gardiner & J.A. Sheridan (eds), Is there a British Chalcolithic? People, place and polity in the late third millennium, 1–26. Oxford: Oxbow Books (Prehistoric Society Research Papers 4) Google Scholar
Needham, S. 2012b. Putting capes into context: Mold at the heart of a domain. In W.J. Britnell & R.J. Silvester (eds), Reflections on the Past: Essays in honour of Frances Lynch, 210–236. Welshpool: Cambrian Archaeological Association Google Scholar
Needham, S. & Sheridan, J.A. 2014. Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age goldwork from Britain: new finds and new perspectives. In H. Meller, E. Pernicka & R. Risch (eds), Metals of Power: Early Gold and Silver. Proceedings of the 6th Archaeological Congress of Central Germany, 903–941. Halle: Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Tagungen des Landesmuseums Band 11/2) Google Scholar
Neiva, A.M.G., Andráš, P. & Ramos, J.M.F. 2008. Antimony quartz and antimony-gold quartz veins from northern Portugal. Ore Geology Reviews 34, 533–546 Google Scholar
Ni, Wen 1991. Copper and other mineralization in metamorphosed “red beds”, West Carbery area, south-west Cork, Ireland. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Birmingham.Google Scholar
Nocete, F., Sáez, R., Bayona, M.R., Nieto, J.M., Peramoa, A., López, P., Gil-Ibarguchi, J.I., Inácio, N., García, S. & Rodríguez, J. 2014. Gold in the Southwest of the Iberian Peninsula during the 3rd Millennium BC . Journal of Archaeological Science 41, 691–704 Google Scholar
Northover, J.P.N. 1982. The exploration of the long-distance movement of bronze in Bronze and Early Iron Age Europe. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology, University of London 19, 45–72 Google Scholar
Northover, J.P.N., O'Brien, W. & Stos, S. 2001. Lead isotopes and metal circulation in Beaker/Early Bronze Age Ireland. Journal of Irish Archaeology 10, 25–47 Google Scholar
O'Brien, W. 1994. Mount Gabriel: Bronze Age copper mining in Ireland. Galway: Galway University Press Google Scholar
O'Brien, W. 1999. Sacred Ground. Megalithic Tombs in Coastal South-west Ireland. Galway: Galway University Press Google Scholar
O’Brien, W. 2003. The Bronze Age copper mines of the Goleen area, Co. Cork. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 103C (2), 13–59 Google Scholar
O'Brien, W. 2004. Ross Island: mining, metal and society in early Ireland. Galway: National University of Ireland Google Scholar
O'Brien, W. 2012. The Chalcolithic in Ireland: a chronological and cultural framework. In M. Allen, J. Gardiner & J.A. Sheridan (eds), Is there a British Chalcolithic? People, place and polity in the late 3rd millennium, 211–225. Oxford: Oxbow Books (Prehistoric Society Research Papers 4) Google Scholar
O'Connor, B. 2004. The earliest Scottish metalwork since Coles. In I. Shepherd & G. Barclay (eds), Scotland in Ancient Europe, 205–216. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Google Scholar
Oh, M.S., Marcoux, E., Calvez, J.Y. & Touray, J.C. 1989. Anomalous unradiogenic lead from strata-bound Zn–Pb–Cu mineralization in the Saint-Georges-sur-Loire synclinorium (Armorican Massif, France). Economic Geology 84, 1436–1443 Google Scholar
O’Keeffe, W.G. 1986. Age and postulated source rocks for mineralization in Central Ireland, as indicated by lead isotopes. In C.J. Andrew, R.W.A. Crowe, S. Finlay, W.M. Pennell & J.F. Pyne (eds), Geology and genesis of mineral deposits in Ireland, 617–624. Dublin: Irish Association of Economic Geology CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pare, C.F.E. 2000. Bronze and the Bronze Age. In C.F.E. Pare (ed), Metals Make the World Go Round: The Supply and Circulation of Metals in Bronze Age Europe, 1–38. Oxford: Oxbow Google Scholar
Penhallurick, R.D. 1986. Tin in antiquity. London: Institute of Metals Google Scholar
Penhallurick, R.D. 1997. The evidence for prehistoric mining in Cornwall. In P. Budd & D. Gale (eds), Prehistoric Extractive Metallurgy in Cornwall, 23–33. Truro: Cornwall Archaeological Unit Google Scholar
Pernicka, E. 2014a. Provenance determination of archaeological metal objects. In B.W. Roberts & C.P. Thornton (eds), Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 239–268. New York: Springer Google Scholar
Pernicka, E. 2014b. Possibilities and limitations of provenance studies of ancient silver and gold. In H. Meller, E. Pernicka & R. Risch (eds), Metals of Power: Early Gold and Silver. Proceedings of the 6th Archaeological Congress of Central Germany, 153–164. Halle: Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle (Tagungen des Landesmuseums Band 11/1) Google Scholar
Pollard, A.M. & Heron, C. 2008. Archaeological Chemistry, 2nd ed. London: Royal Society of Chemistry Google Scholar
Pracht, M. & Sleeman, A.G. 2002. A Geological Description of West Cork and Adjacent parts of Kerry to Accompany the Bedrock Geology 1:100,000 Scale Map Series, Sheet 24, West Cork, with Contributions by G. Wright (groundwater) and W. Cox (minerals). Dublin: Geological Survey of Ireland Google Scholar
Rathbone, S. 2013. A consideration of villages in Neolithic and Bronze Age Britain and Ireland. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 79, 1–22 Google Scholar
Reilly, T.A. 1986. A review of vein mineralization in SW Couny Cork, Ireland. In C.J. Andrew, R.W.A. Crowe, S. Finlay, W.M. Pennell & J.F. Pyne (eds), Geology and genesis of mineral deposits in Ireland, 513–544. Dublin: Irish Association for Economic Geology Google Scholar
Rohl, B. 1995. Application of Lead Isotope Analysis to Bronze Age Metalwork from England and Wales. Unpublished D.Phil thesis, University of Oxford.Google Scholar
Rohl, B. 1996. Lead isotope data from the Isotrace Laboratory, Oxford: Archaeometry data base 2, galena from Britain and Ireland. Archaeometry 38, 165–180 Google Scholar
Rohl, B. & Needham, S. 1998. The Circulation of Metal in the British Bronze Age: the Application of Lead Isotope Analysis. London: British Museum Occasional Paper Google Scholar
Romer, R.L. & Soler, A. 1995. U-Pb age and lead isotopic characterization of Au-bearing skarn related to the Andorra granite (central Pyrenees, Spain). Mineralium Deposita 30, 374–383 Google Scholar
Saunders, N.J. 2003. “Catching the light”: technologies of power and enchantment in pre-Columbian goldworking. In J. Quilter & J.W. Hoopes (eds), Gold and Power in Ancient Costa Rica, Columbia and Panama, 15–48. Washington DC: Dumbarton Oaks Google Scholar
Schmiderer, A. 2009. Geochemische Charakterisierung von Goldvorkommen in Europa. PhD thesis, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg.Google Scholar
Schoenberger, E. 2011. Why is gold valuable? Nature, social power and the value of things. Cultural Geographies 18, 3–24 Google Scholar
Scott, B.G. 1976. The occurrence of platinum as a trace element in Irish gold: comments in Hartmann's gold analyses. Irish Archaeological Reseach Forum 3, 21–24 Google Scholar
Shell, C.A. 1978. The early exploitation of tin deposits in south west England. In M. Ryan (ed), The Origins of Metallurgy in Atlantic Europe, 251–263. Dublin: The Stationery Office Google Scholar
Sheridan, J.A. 2008. Towards a fuller, more nuanced narrative of Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Britain 2500–1500 BC . Bronze Age Review 1, 57–78 Google Scholar
Sheridan, J.A., Davis, M., Clark, I. & Redvers-Jones, H. 2002. Investigating jet and jet-like artefacts from prehistoric Scotland: The National Museums of Scotland Project. Antiquity 76, 812–825 Google Scholar
Sheridan, J. A., Jay, M., Montgomery, J., Pellegrini, M. & Cahill Wilson, J. 2013. ‘Tara Boy’: local hero or international man of mystery?. In M. O’Sullivan, C. Scarre & M. Doyle (eds), Tara – from the past to the future. Towards a new research agenda, 207–232. Dublin: Wordwell Google Scholar
Sheridan, J.A. & Shortland, A. 2003. Supernatural power dressing. British Archaeology 70, 18–23 Google Scholar
Sheridan, J.A. & Shortland, A. 2004. ‘...beads which have given rise to such dogmatism, controversy and rash speculation’: faience in Early Bronze Age Britain and Ireland. In I.A.G. Shepherd & G.J. Barclay (eds), Scotland in Ancient Europe, 263–279. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Google Scholar
Standish, C.D. 2012. The source of Irish Chalcolithic and Bronze Age Gold: a lead isotope and major element provenance study. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Bristol.Google Scholar
Standish, C.D., Dhuime, B., Chapman, R.J., Coath, C., Hawkesworth, C.J. & Pike, A.W.G. 2013. Solution and laser ablation MC-ICP-MS lead isotope analysis of gold. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 28, 217–225 Google Scholar
Standish, C.D., Dhuime, B., Chapman, R.J., Hawkesworth, C.J. & Pike, A.W.G. 2014. The genesis of gold mineralisation hosted by orogenic belts: A lead isotope investigation of Irish gold deposits. Chemical Geology 378–9, 40–51 Google Scholar
Stanley, G., Carroll, B., Connolly, J. & Doyle, E. 2000. A Review of Ireland's Potential for Bedrock Gold Mineralization. Dublin: Geological Survey of Ireland Google Scholar
Stos-Gale, Z.A. & Gale, N.H. 2009. Metal provenancing using isotopes and the Oxford archaeological lead isotope database (OXALID). Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 1, 195–213 Google Scholar
Taylor, J.J. 1980. Bronze Age Goldwork of the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Google Scholar
Taylor, J.J. 1994. The Oliver Davis Lecture: The first golden age of Europe was in Ireland and Britain (circa 2400–1400 BC). Ulster Journal of Archaeology 57, 37–60 Google Scholar
Taylor, J.J., Watling, R.J., Shell, C.A., Ixer, R.A., Chapman, R.J., Warner, R.B. & Cahill, M. 1997. From gold ores to artifacts in the British Isles: a preliminary study of a new LA-ICP-MS analytical approach. In C. Sinclair, E. Slater & G. Gowlett (eds), Archaeological Sciences 1995, 144–154. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Timberlake, S. 1994. Archaeological and circumstantial evidence for early mining in Wales. Bulletin of the Peak District Mines Historical Society 12, 133–143 Google Scholar
Timberlake, S. 2006. Excavations at early mine workings at Twll y Mwyn (Cwm Darren) and Erglodd, Ceredigion. Archaeology in Wales 46, 79–86 Google Scholar
Timberlake, S. 2009. Copper mining and metal production at the beginning of the British Bronze Age. In P. Clark (ed), Bronze Age Connections: cultural contact in prehistoric Europe, 94–121. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Timberlake, S., Gwilt, A. & Davis, M. 2004. A Copper Age/Early Bronze Age gold disc on Banc Tynddol (Penguelan, Cwmystwyth Mines, Ceredigion). Antiquity 78. Viewed online: http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/timberlake/index.html, 16th June 2014.Google Scholar
Tornos, F. & Chiaradia, M. 2004. Plumbotectonic evolution of the Ossa Morena zone, Iberian Peninsula: Tracing the influence of mantle-crust interaction in ore-forming processes. Economic Geology 99, 965–985 Google Scholar
Touray, J.C., Marcoux, E., Hubert, P. & Proust, D. 1989. Hydrothermal processes and ore-forming fluids in the Le Bourneix gold deposit, central France. Economic Geology 84, 1328–1339 Google Scholar
Warner, R. 2004. Irish gold artefacts: observations from Hartmann's analytical data. In H. Roche, E. Grogan, J. Bradley, J. Coles & B. Raftery (eds), From Megaliths to Metals: essays in honour of George Eogan, 72–82. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Warner, R.B. & Cahill, M. 2011. Analysing ancient Irish gold: an assessment of the Hartmann database. Journal of Irish Archaeology 20, 45–52 Google Scholar
Warner, R., Chapman, R., Cahill, M. & Moles, N. 2009. The gold source found at last? Archaeology Ireland 23 (2), 22–25 Google Scholar
Warner, R., Moles, N. & Chapman, R. 2010a. Evidence for Early Bronze Age tin and gold extraction in the Mourne Mountains, County Down. Journal of the Mining Heritage Trust of Ireland 10, 29–36 Google Scholar
Warner, R., Moles, N., Chapman, R. & Cahill, M. 2010b. The Mournes: a source of early Bronze Age tin and gold. Archaeology Ireland 24 (4), 18–21 Google Scholar
Watling, R.J., Taylor, J.J., Shell, C.A., Chapman, R.J., Warner, R.B., Cahill, M. & Leake, R.C. 1999. The application of laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) for establishing the provenance of gold ores and artefacts. In S.M.M. Young, A.M. Pollard, P. Budd & R.A. Ixer (eds), Metals in Antiquity, 53–62. Oxford: Archaeopress Google Scholar
Woodward, A. 2002. Beads and beakers: heirlooms and relics in the British Early Bronze Age. Antiquity 76, 1040–1047 Google Scholar
Zalduegui, J.F.S., De Madinabeitia, S.G., Ibarguchi, J.I.G. & Palero, E. 2004. A lead isotope database: The Los Pedroches-Alcudia area (Spain); implications for archaeometallurgical connections across southwestern and southeastern Iberia. Archaeometry 46, 625–634 Google Scholar