I am indebted to Dr. Philip L. Frana, of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, for assistance with this essay, and to Professor Judith Sealander for editorial and other assistance throughout the project. I also thank Professor David M. Katzman of the University of Kansas and Professor Ethan C. Kleinberg of Wesleyan University for reading an earlier draft of this essay with great care and perspicacity.

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8. The literature on Progressive reform is immense, but clearly useful works are Wiebe, Robert H., The Search for Order 1877–1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1968)Google Scholar; Hays, Samuel P., Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890–1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959)Google Scholar; Hays, , The Responses to Industrialism, 2nd ed. (1957; rept. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)Google Scholar; Kolko, Gabriel, The Triumph of Conservatism (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1963)Google Scholar; Keller, Morton, The Life Insurance Enterprise, 1885–1910 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1963)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Kerr, K. Austin, American Railroad Politics, 1914–1920 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1968)Google Scholar.

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10. Warner, John Harley, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820–1885 (1986; rept. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997) 11–57, 235–83Google Scholar; see also Warner, , Against the Spirit of System: The French Impulse in Nineteenth-Century American Medicine (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998) passimGoogle Scholar. Other helpful accounts of this larger transition include Fleming, Donald H., William H. Welch and the Rise of Modern Medicine (Boston: Little, Brown, 1954)Google Scholar; and Rosen, Structure of American Medical Practice. See also Starr, Paul, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic, 1982)Google ScholarPubMed.

11. Warner, , Therapeutic Perspective, 245Google Scholar.

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13. Strode, George M. and Bugher, John C., eds., Yellow Fever (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951) 6Google Scholar.

14. Sternberg, George M., Report on the Etiology and Prevention of Yellow Fever (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1890) passimGoogle Scholar.

15. Kelly, Howard A., Walter Reed and Yellow Fever, new and rev. ed. (Baltimore: Medical Standard Book Company, 1906) 70–71Google Scholar. Kelly was a friend and contemporary of Walter Reed. His book may be read as a heroic history of the new experimental medical science.

16. Gorgas, William Crawford, Sanitation in Panama (New York: D. Appleton, 1915) 149Google Scholar. This book may be read as a heroic text on its subject.

17. Gorgas, , Sanitation in Panama, 138–206, passimGoogle Scholar. On the politics of sanitation in Panama and Welch's intervention with President Roosevelt, see Dupree, A. Hunter, Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Practices to 1940 (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1956) 266Google Scholar; and Fleming, , William H. Welch, 134Google Scholar.

18. On yellow fever generally, see Strode et al., Yellow Fever, passim. See also Dupree, , Science, 263–67Google ScholarPubMed; Kelly, , Walter Reed, 62–292Google ScholarPubMed, which quotes from private correspondence and gives the perspective of Reed and his followers; Yellow Fever Commission, Yellow Fever: A Compilation of Various Publications — Results of the Work of Maj. Walter Reed, Medical Corps, United States Army, and the Yellow Fever Commission, 61st Cong., 3rd sess., U.S. Senate, Doc. 822 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1911) passimGoogle Scholar, a useful aggregate of original sources; Truby, Albert E., Memoir of Walter Reed: The Yellow Fever Episode (New York: Paul B. Hoeber, Medical Book Department of Harper and Brothers, 1943)Google Scholar a detailed account by a participant who again, like Kelly, wanted to keep the heroic aspects of the episode alive; Rosen, George, A History of Public Health, expanded ed. (1958; rept. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993) 300–2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; SirBoyce, Rupert W., Mosquito or Man? The Conquest of the Tropical World (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1908) 155–94Google ScholarPubMed; and Hansen, Bert, “New Images of a New Medicine: Visual Evidence for the Widespread Popularity of Therapeutic Discoveries in America after 1885,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 73 (1999): 629–78CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

19. Some of the flavor of the international discussion of the disease may be found in the following early-20th-century works: Nuttall, George Henry Falkiner, The Bacteriology of Diphtheria, Including Sections on the History, Epidemiology, and Pathology of the Disease, the Mortality Caused by It, the Toxins and Antitoxins and the Serum Disease, ed. Nuttall, G. H. F. and Graham-Smith, G. S. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908) passimGoogle Scholar; Medical Research Council (Great Britain) Bacteriology Committee, Diphtheria: Its Bacteriology, Pathology, and Immunology (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1923), passimGoogle Scholar; Hieber, Alfred, Ein Beitrag zur pathologischen Anatomie der Streptokokken-Diphtherie der Binde-haut (Freiburg im Breslau: Druck von K. Henn, 1903) passimGoogle Scholar; and von Behring, Emil, Die Geschichte der Diphtherie: Mit besonder Berueckstigung der Immunitaetslehre (Leipzig: G. Thieme, 1893)Google Scholar, passim. See also Ziporyn, Terra Diane, Disease in the Popular American Press: The Case of Diphtheria, Typhoid Fever, and Syphilis, 1870–1920 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1988)Google Scholar.

20. According to the great Paul Ehrlich, active immunity was acquired as a result of treatment or encounters with toxins, whereas passive immunity resulted from the injection of antitoxin obtained from another animal (cf. Himmelweit, Frederich, Marquart, Michael, and Dale, Henry, eds., Collected Papers of Paul Ehrlich, 3 vols. [London: Pergamon, 1960], 3: 86–106Google Scholar).

21. Hammonds, Evelynn Maxine, Childhood's Deadly Scourge: The Campaign to Control Diphtheria in New York City, 1880–1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999) 5–191Google Scholar, passim. See also Liebenau, Jonathan M., “Public Health and the Production and Use of Diphtheria Antitoxin in Philadelphia,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 61 (1987): 216–36Google ScholarPubMed.

22. Based on a variety of secondary works, including Benson, Lee, The Concept of Jacksonian Democracy: New York as a Test Case (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961) passimGoogle Scholar; Marcus, Alan I and Segal, Howard P., Technology in America: A Brief History (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1989) 88–129Google Scholar; and Sellers, Charles G., The Market Revolution. Jacksonian America, 1815–1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991) passimGoogle Scholar. This group-oriented or interest-oriented laissez-faire liberalism is to be differentiated from the individualistic version, dubbed Republicanism in recent historiography, which held sway until the 1830s (although character or reputation was important here, too). A shorthand way of thinking of the difference is of the classical liberalism of James Mill and of his son, John Stuart Mill.

23. See Marcus, Alan I, “Setting the Standard: Fertilizers, State Chemists, and Early National Commercial Regulation, 1880–1887,” Agricultural History 61 (1987): 47–73Google Scholar; and Marcus, Agricultural Science, passim.

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25. Beardsley, Edward H., Harry L. Russell and Agricultural Science in Wisconsin (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969) 13–25Google Scholar; as well as Beardsley, , The Rise of the American Chemistry Profession 1850–1900 (Gainesville: University of Florida Social Science Monographs, 1964) passimGoogle Scholar; Prescott, Samuel Cate and Underwood, W. Lyman, “Microorganisms and Sterilizing Processes in the Canning Industry,” Technology Quarterly and Society of the Arts 10, no. 1 (03 1897): 183–99Google Scholar; Prescott, and Underwood, , “Contributions to Our Knowledge of Micro-organisms and Sterilizing Processes in the Canning Industries. II: The Souring of Canned Corn,” Technology Quarterly and Society of the Arts 11, no. 1 (03 1898): 6–30Google Scholar; and Prescott, and Underwood, , “Contributions to Our Knowledge of Micro-organisms and Sterilizing Processes in the Canning Industry, “ Science, n.s., 7, no. 152 (11 26, 1897): 800–802Google Scholar.

26. Kolko, Gabriel, Triumph of Conservatism, pp. 99–108Google Scholar.

27. Ibid.

28. Young, James Harvey, The Toadstool Millionaires: A Social History of Patent Medicines in America Before Federal Regulation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961) 205–62Google Scholar.

29. Coombs, Jan, “Rural Medical Practice in the 1880s: A View From Central Wisconsin,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 64 (1990): 35–62Google ScholarPubMed.

30. Rosen, , Structure, 19–36Google ScholarPubMed.

31. Ludmerer, , Learning to Heal, 47–165Google Scholar, passim. See also Edelson, Paul J., “Adopting Osier's Principles: Medical Textbooks in American Medical Schools, 1891–1906,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 68 (1994): 67–84Google ScholarPubMed. A very important book on contemporary issues in medical education is Ludmerer, Kenneth M., Time to Heal: American Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

32. Ibid. See also Fox, Daniel, “Abraham Flexner's Unpublished Report: Foundations and Medical Education, 1909–1928,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 54 (1980): 475–96Google ScholarPubMed; and Wheatley, Steven C., The Politics of Philanthropy: Abraham Flexner and Medical Education (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 3–82Google Scholar, passim.

33. It is unfortunate that so many historians have so completely misunderstood the reality of late-19th-century German universities, as distinct from what American academic and cultural reformers wished to believe about those institutions — and, for that matter, about the relationship of life in the newly united Kaiserreich to life in post-Appomattox America. But this problem requires a large book, and a highly well organized comparative history research project, to resolve, not the mere citation of a phrase or a clause from this person to that in private correspondence.

34. Wheatley's The Politics of Philanthropy is especially sophisticated on this point. See also, however, Karl, Barry D., “The Power of Intellect and the Politics of Ideas,” Daedalus 86 (1968): 1002–35Google Scholar, a seminal piece in the historiography of American philanthropy. An older approach to the subject is represented by Bremner, Robert H., American Philanthropy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962)Google Scholar.

35. Flexner, Abraham, Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, with an introduction by Henry S. Pritchett (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910) 186, 307, 188, 309–12, 283–89, 319, 320–26Google Scholar.

36. Ibid., 143–155, quote at p. 155.

37. See, for example, the Whiggish, but still useful Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities to 1940 (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1957) 326–368, by A. Hunter DupreeGoogle Scholar; Hawley, Ellis A., The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hawley, , “Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat, and the Vision of the Associative State, 1921–1928,” Journal of American History 51 (1974): 116–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hawley, , The Great War and the Search for Modern Order: A History of the American People and Their Institutions, 1917–1933, (New York: St. Martin's, 1979)Google Scholar; Hawley, , “Three Facets of Hooverian Associationalism: Lumber, Aviation, and the Movies,” in Regulation in Perspective: Historical Essays, ed. McCraw, Thomas K. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981)Google Scholar; Karl, Barry D., “Presidential Planning and Social Science Research: Mr. Hoover's Experts,” Perspectives in American History 3 (1969): 351–53, passimGoogle Scholar; Karl, , Charles E. Merriam and the Study of Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974)Google Scholar; Diner, Stephen J., A City and Its Universities: Public Policy in Chicago (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980)Google Scholar; Hamilton, David E., From New Day to New Deal: American Farm Policy from Hoover to Roosevelt, 1928–1933 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991)Google Scholar; and much current literature stemming from these works. A fine source that exemplifies the new expertise is the President's Research Committee on Social Trends, Recent Social Trends in the United States, 2 vols. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1933)Google Scholar. Books that suggest this change in science include Cravens, , Before Head Start, chs. 1–3Google Scholar; Marcus, Cancer from Beef, passim; and Hays, Samuel P., Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959)Google Scholar. A good book that shows this change in public policy and philanthropy is Sealander, Judith, Private Wealth & Public Life. Foundation Philanthropy and the Reshaping of American Social Policy from the Progressive Era to the New Deal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

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39. Rosenberg, Charles E., The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System (New York: Basic, 1986)Google Scholar covers the 19th century roots, such as they were, of 20th-century hospitals. The difficulty arises, however, for readers of this essay, in that the differences and changes in the 20th century tend to be blended together. Stevens, Rosemary, American Medicine and the Public Interest (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971)Google Scholar and Starr, Paul, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic, 1982)Google Scholar provide a good general background on American medicine as public event and public policy in the 20th century.

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41. See, for example, Clapesattle, Helen B., The Doctors Mayo (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1941)Google Scholar.

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