Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-ph5wq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-29T09:31:33.531Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The natural history of schizophrenia: a five-year follow-up study of outcome and prediction in a representative sample of schizophrenics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 July 2009

Get access

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Monograph
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1989

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abel-Smith, B. & Titmuss, R. M. (1956). The Cost of the National Health Service in England and Wales. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.Google Scholar
Achté, D. A. (1967). On prognosis and rehabilitation in schizophrenic and paranoid psychoses. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 43, Suppl. 196.Google Scholar
Affleck, J. W., Burns, J. & Forrest, A. D. (1976). Long-term followup of schizophrenic patients in Edinburgh. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 53, 227237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Astrup, C., Fossum, A. & Holmboe, R. (1962). Prognosis in Functional Psychoses. C. C. Thomas: Springfield, Illinois.Google ScholarPubMed
Astrup, C. & Noreik, K. (1966). Functional Psychoses: Diagnostic & Prognostic Models. C. C. Thomas: Springfield, Illinois.Google ScholarPubMed
Beck, M. N. (1968). Twenty-five and thirty-five year follow-up of first admissions to mental hospital. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 13, 219229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Biehl, H., Maurer, K., Schubart, C., Krumm, B. & Jung, E. (1986). Prediction of outcome and utilization of medical services in a prospective study of first onset schizophrenics: results of a fiveyear follow-up study. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences 236, 139147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bland, R. C. & Orn, H. (1979). Schizophrenia: diagnostic criteria and outcome. British Journal of Psychiatry 134, 3438.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bleuler, E. (1908). The prognosis of dementia praecox: the group of schizophrenias (Die Prognose der Dementia Praecox–Schizophreniegruppe), Allegemeine Zeitschift fur Psychiatrie 65, 436464. Translated in The Clinical Roots of the Schizophrenia Concept (ed. J. Cutting & M. Shepherd), pp. 59–74. Cambridge University Press: London. 1987.Google Scholar
Bleuler, E. (1950). Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenias (trans. Zimkiss, J.). International Universities Press: New York.Google Scholar
Bleuler, M. (1978). The Schizophrenic Disorders: Long-term Patient and Family Studies. Yale University Press: New Haven.Google Scholar
Bond, E. D. & Braceland, F. J. (1937). Prognosis in mental disease. American Journal of Psychiatry 94, 263274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Böök, J. A. & Modrzewska, K. (1982). Schizophrenia and suicide in a north Swedish isolate, 1890–1980. Clinical Genetics 22, 280283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braatöy, T. (1936). The prognosis in schizophrenia, with some remarks regarding diagnosis and therapy. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica Scandinavica 11, 63102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockington, I. F., Kendell, R. E. & Wainwright, S. (1980). Depressed patients with schizophrenic or paranoid symptoms. Psychological Medicine 10, 665675.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, G. W. & Harris, T. O. (1978). Social Origins of Depression: A Study of Psychiatric Disorder in Women. Tavistock: London.Google Scholar
Brown, G. W., Bone, M., Dalison, B. & Wing, J. K. (1966). Schizophrenia and Social Care. Oxford University Press: London.Google Scholar
Brown, G. W., Birley, J. L. T. & Wing, J. K. (1972). Influence of family life on the course of schizophrenia disorders: a replication. British Journal of Psychiatry 121, 241258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ciompi, L. (1980). Catamnestic long-term study on the course of life and aging of schizophrenics. Schizophrenia Bulletin 6, 606618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ciompi, L. & Müller, C. (1976). Lebesweg undAller der Schizophrenen. Springer-Verlag: Berlin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement 20, 3746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, J. E. (1967). Diagnostic change in a longitudinal study of psychiatric patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 113, 129142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creer, C. & Wing, J. (1974). Schizophrenia at Home. National Schizophrenia Fellowship: Surbiton.Google Scholar
Department of Health and Social Security (1977). In-patient Statistics from the Mental Mental Health Enquiry for England 1974. HMSO: London.Google Scholar
Dilling, H. & Weyerer, S. (1984). Prevalence of mental disorders in the small-town-rural region of Traunstein (Upper Bavaria). Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 69, 6079.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donlon, P. T., Rada, R. T. & Arora, K. K. (1976). Depression and the reintegration phase of acute schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 133, 12651268.Google ScholarPubMed
Dunn, G. (1981). The role of linear models in psychiatric epidemiology. Psychological Medicine 11, 179184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eitinger, L., Laane, C. L. & Langfeldt, G. (1958). The prognostic value of the clinical picture and the therapeutic value of physical treatment in schizophrenia and the schizophreniform states. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica Scandinavica 33, 3353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evensen, H. (1936). Recherches faites aprés la sortie sur env. 800 cas de démence précoce, traités à l'asil d'aliénés de Gaustad durant les années 1915–29. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica 11, 799816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faergeman, P.M. (1963). Psychogenic Psychoses. Butterworths: London.Google Scholar
Falloon, I. R. H., Boyd, J. L., McGill, C. W., Razani, J., Moss, H. B. & Gilderman, A. M. (1982). Family management in the prevention of exacerbations of schizophrenia. The New England Journal of Medicine 306, 14371441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falloon, I., Watt, D. C. & Shepherd, M. (1978 a). A comparative controlled trial of pimozide and fluphenazine decanoate in the continuation therapy of schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 8, 5970.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falloon, I., Watt, D. C. & Shepherd, M. (1978 b). The social outcome of patients in a trial of long-term continuation therapy in schizophrenia: pimozide vs fluphenazine. Psychological Medicine 8, 265274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farina, A., Garmezy, N. & Barry, H. (1963). Relationship of marital status to incidence and prognosis of schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67, 624630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forrest, A. D. & Hay, A. J. (1972). The influence of sex on schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatric Scandinavica 48, 4958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freyhan, F. A. (1955). Course and outcome of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 112, 161167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galdi, J., Rieder, R. O., Silber, D. & Bonato, R. R. (1981). Genetic factors in the response to neuroleptics in schizophrenia: a psychopharmacogenetic study. Psychological Medicine 11, 713728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gopleurud, E. & Depue, R. A. (1978). The diagnostic ambiguity of post psychotic depression. Schizophrenia Bulletin 4, 477480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, I. J. (1987). Predicting the outcome: a new crystal ball? Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 80, 133134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, D. M. & Wall, J. H. (1948). The hospital treatment of dementia praecox. American Journal of Psychiatry 105, 346352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hand, D. J. (1981). Discrimination and Classification. Wiley: London.Google Scholar
Harding, C. M., Brooks, G. W., Ashikaga, T., Strauss, J. S. & Breier, A. (1987). The Vermont longitudinal study of persons with severe mental illness, I: Methodology, study sample and overall status 32 years later. American Journal of Psychiatry 144, 718726.Google ScholarPubMed
Harris, A., Linker, I., Norris, V. & Shepherd, M. (1956). Schizophrenia: a prognostic and social study. British Journal of Preventive and Social Medicine 10, 107114.Google ScholarPubMed
Hastings, D. W. (1958). Follow-up results in psychiatric illness. American Journal of Psychiatry 114, 10571065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawk, A. B., Carpenter, W. T. & Strauss, J. S. (1975). Diagnostic criteria and five-year outcome in schizophrenia: A report from the International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 32, 343347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmboe, R. & Astrup, C. (1957). A follow-up study of 255 patients with acute schizophrenia and schizophreniform psychoses. Acta Psychiatrica el Neurologica Scandinavica, Suppl. 115, 32.Google Scholar
Hüber, G., Gross, G. & Schüttler, R. (1975). A long-term follow up study of schizophrenia: Psychiatric course of illness and prognosis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 52, 4957.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hüber, G., Gross, G., Schüttler, R. & Linz, M. (1980). Longitudinal studies of schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia Bulletin 6, 593605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jablensky, A. (1987). Multicultural studies and the nature of schizophrenia: a review. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 80, 162167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johanson, E. (1958). A study of schizophrenia in the male. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica Scandinavica, Suppl. 125, 33.Google Scholar
Johnson, D. A. W. (1981). Studies of depressive symptoms in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 139, 89101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnstone, E. C., Frith, C. D., Gold, A. & Stevens, M. (1979). The outcome of severe acute schizophrenic illness after one year. British Journal of Psychiatry 134, 2833.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kay, D. W. K. (1972). Schizophrenia and schizophrenia-like states in the elderly. British Journal of Hospital Medicine 8, 369376.Google Scholar
Kendall, M. G. & Stuart, A. (1979). The Advanced Theory of Statistics, Vol. 2, fourth edn. Griffin: London.Google Scholar
Kendall, M., Stuart, A. & Ord, J. K. (1983). The Advanced Theory of Statistics, Vol. 3, fourth edn. Griffin: London.Google Scholar
Kendell, R. E. & Gourlay, J. (1970). The clinical distinction between affective psychoses and schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 117, 261266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knights, A. & Hirsch, S. R. (1981). ‘Revealed’ depression and drug treatment for schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 38, 806811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraepelin, E. (1896). Psychiatrie, fifth edn. Johann Ambrosius Barth: Leipzig.Google Scholar
Kraepelin, E. (1919). Dementia Praecox and Paraphrenia. Livingstone: Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Kulhara, P. & Wig, N. N. (1978). The chronicity of schizophrenia in North West India: results of a follow-up study. British Journal of Psychiatry 132, 186190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landis, C. & Page, J. D. (1938). Modern Society and Mental Disease. Rinehart: New York.Google Scholar
Langfeldt, G. (1937). The Prognosis in Schizophrenia and the Factors Influencing the Course of the Disease. Oxford University Press: London.Google Scholar
Langfeldt, G. (1939). The Schizophreniform States. Munksgaard: Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Leaf, P. J., Weissman, M. M., Myers, J. K., Tischler, G. L. & Holzer, C. E. (1984). Social factors related to psychiatric disorder: the Yale Epidemiological Catchment Area Study. Social Psychiatry 19, 5361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leff, J., Kuipers, L., Berkowitz, R. & Sturgeon, D. (1985). A controlled trial of social intervention in the families of schizophrenic patients: two-year follow-up. British Journal of Psychiatry 146, 594600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leventhal, D. B., Schuck, J. R. & Rothstein, H. (1984). Gender differences in schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 172, 464467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewine, R. R. J. (1980). Sex differences in age of symptom onset and first hospitalisation in schizophrenia. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 50, 316322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewine, R. R. J. (1981). Sex differences in schizophrenia. Timing or subtypes? Psychological Bulletin 90, 432444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewine, R. R. J., Strauss, J. S. & Gift, T. E. (1981). Sex differences in age at first hospital admission for schizophrenia: fact or artefact? American Journal of Psychiatry 138, 440444.Google ScholarPubMed
Lewis, A. (1953). Health as a social concept. British Journal of Sociology 4, 109124. Reprinted in The State of Psychiatry (1967), Routledge and Kegan Paul: London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lilienfeld, A. M. & Lilienfeld, D. E. (1980). Foundations of Epidemiology, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Loranger, A. W. (1984). Sex differences in age at onset of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 45, 157161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malamud, W. & Render, N. (1939). Course and prognosis in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 95, 10391057.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malzberg, B. (1935). A statistical study of age in relation to mental disease. Mental Hygiene 19, 449477.Google Scholar
Markowe, M., Steinert, J. & Heyworth-Davies, F. (1967). Insulin and chlorpromazine in schizophrenia: A ten-year comparative study. British Journal of Psychiatry 113, 11011106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masterson, J. F. (1965). Prognosis in adolescent disorders: Schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 124, 219232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, P. R. A., Tuma, A. H. & Kraude, W. (1965). Community follow-up of treatment of schizophrenia – issues and problems. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 35, 754763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mayer-Gross, W. (1932). Die Schizophrenie. In Handuch der Geisteskrankheiten, Vol. 9 (ed. Bumke, D.), pp. 534578. Springer: Berlin.Google Scholar
Mellor, C. S. (1982). The present status of first-rank symptoms. British Journal of Psychiatry 140, 423424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Möller, H. J. & von Zerrsen, D. (1982). Depressive states occurring during the neuroleptic treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 8, 109117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Möller, H. J., von Zerssen, D., Werner-Eilert, K. & WüschnerStockeim, M. (1982). Outcome in schizophrenia and similar paranoid psychoses. Schizophrenia Bulletin 8, 99108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munk-Jørgensen, P. (1986). Decreasing first-admission rates of schizophrenia among males in Denmark from 1970 to 1984. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 73, 645650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murphy, H. B. M. & Raman, A. C. (1971). The chronicity of schizophrenia in indigenous tropical peoples: results of a twelveyear follow-up survey in Mauritius. British Journal of Psychiatry 118, 489497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norris, V. (1956). A statistical study of the influence of marriage on the hospital care of the mentally sick. Journal of Mental Science 102, 467486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norris, V. (1959). Mental Illness in London. Maudsley Monographs, no. 6, Institute of Psychiatry, Chapman & Hall: London.Google Scholar
Nystrup, J. (1976). A hospital population of schizophrenic patients undergoing change. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 53, 211226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ødegaard, Ø. (1946). Marriage and mental disease: a study in social psychopathology. Journal of Mental Science 92, 3559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ødegaard, Ø. (1967). Changes in the prognosis of functional psychoses since the days of Kraepelin. British Journal of Psychiatry 113, 813822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, R. L., Ekisa, E. G. & Winbow, A. J. (1981). Patterns of selfreported symptoms in chronic psychiatric patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 139, 209212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Planansky, K. & Johnston, R. (1978). Depressive syndrome in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 57, 207218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rawnsley, K. (1982). Epidemiology of affective psychoses. In Handbook of Psychiatry, vol. 3 (ed. Wing, J. K. and Wing, L.), pp. 129133. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.Google Scholar
Rennie, T. A. C. (1941). Analysis of one hundred cases of schizophrenia with recovery. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 46, 197229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rennie, T. A. C. & Fowler, J. B. (1939). Follow-up study of five hundred patients with schizophrenia admitted to the hospital from 1913 to 1923. Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry 42, 877891.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renton, C. A., Affleck, J. W., Carstairs, G. M. & Forrest, A. D. (1963). A follow-up of schizophrenic patients in Edinburgh. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 39, 548600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Retterstöl, N. (1966). Paranoid and Paranoiac Psychoses. Universitetsforlaget: Oslo.Google Scholar
Rosanoff, A. J. (1914). A statistical study of prognosis in insanity. Journal of the American Medical Association 62, 36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosanthal, D. (1961). Sex distribution and the severity of illness among samples of schizophrenic twins. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1, 2636.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rupp, C. & Fletcher, E. K. (1940). A five to ten year follow-up study of 641 schizophrenic cases. American Journal of Psychiatry 96, 877888.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salokangas, R. K. R. (1983). Prognostic implications of the sex of schizophrenic patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 142, 145151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sartorius, N., Jablensky, A., Korten, A., Ernberg, G., Anker, M., Cooper, J. E. & Day, R. (1986). Early manifestations and firstcontact incidence of schizophrenia in different cultures. Psychological Medicine 16, 909928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, K. (1959). Clinical Psychopathology. Grune & Stratton: New York.Google Scholar
Schneider, K. (1976). Klinische Psychopalhologie, 11th edn. Georg Thieme: Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Schwarz, R., Biehl, H., Krumm, B. & Schubart, C. (1980). Case finding and characteristics of schizophrenic patients of recent onset in Mannheim. In Epidemiological Research as Basis for the Organisation of Extramural Psychiatry, (ed. Strömgren, E., Dupont, A. and Nielsen, J. A.). Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, Suppl. 285, 62, 212219.Google Scholar
Seeman, M. V. (1981). Gender and the onset of schizophrenia: neurohumoral influences. Psychiatric Journal of the University of Ottawa, 6 136137.Google Scholar
Sheldrick, C., Jablensky, A., Sartorius, N. & Shepherd, M. (1977). Schizophrenia succeeded by affective illness; catamnestic study and statistical enquiry. Psychological Medicine 7, 619624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shepherd, M. (1957). A Study of the Major Psychoses in an English County. Chapman & Hall: London.Google Scholar
Shepherd, M. (1959). The social outcome of early schizophrenia. Psychiatria et Neurologia 137, 224229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shepherd, M., Cooper, B., Brown, A. C. & Kalton, G. W. (1966). Psychiatric Illness in General Practice. Oxford University Press: London.Google Scholar
Siegel, S. (1956). Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioural Sciences. McGraw-Hill: New York.Google Scholar
Spiegel, M. R. (1974). Theory and Problems of Advanced Calculus. McGraw-Hill: New York.Google Scholar
SPSS. (1988). SPSS-X User's Guide, 3rd edn. SPSS Inc.: Chicago.Google Scholar
Stearns, A. W. (1912). The prognosis in dementia praecox. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 167, 158160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephens, J. H. (1970). Long-term course and prognosis in schizophrenia. Seminars in Psychiatry 2, 464485.Google ScholarPubMed
Stephens, J. H. (1978). Long-term prognosis and follow-up in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 4, 2547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevens, B. C. (1969). Marriage and Fertility of Women Suffering from Schizophrenia or Affective Disorders. Maudsley Monograph no. 19. Oxford University Press: London.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevens, B. C. (1973). Role of fluphenazine decanoate in lessening the burden of chronic schizophrenics on the community. Psychological Medicine, 3 141158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strauss, J. S. & Carpenter, W. T. (1977). Prediction of outcome in schizophrenia. III. Five-year outcome and its predictors. Archives of General Psychiatry 34, 159163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szymanski, H. V., Simon, J. C. & Gutterman, N. (1983). Recovery from schizophrenic psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry 140, 335338.Google ScholarPubMed
Tsuang, M. T. & Winokur, G. (1975). The Iowa 500: fieldwork in a 35-year follow-up of depression, mania, and schizophrenia. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 20, 359365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaughn, C. E. & Leff, J. P. (1976). The influence of family and social factors on the course of psychiatric illness: A comparison of schizophrenic and depressed neurotic patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 129, 125137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaughn, C. E., Snyder, K. S., Jones, S., Freeman, W. B. & Falloon, I. R. H. (1984). Family factors in schizophrenic relapse: A California replication of the British research on expressed emotion. Archives of General Psychiatry 41, 11691177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warner, R. (1981) The influence of economic factors on outcome in schizophrenia. Psychiatry & Social Science 1, 79106.Google Scholar
Warner, R. (1985). Recovery from Schizophrenia: Psychiatry and Political Economy. Routledge and Kegan Paul: London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watt, D. C. & Buglass, D. (1966). The effect of clinical and social factors on the discharge of chronic psychiatric patients. Social Psychiatry 1, 5763.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watt, D. C. & Szulecka, T. K. (1979). The effect of sex, marriage and age at first admission on the hospitalization of schizophrenics during 2 years following discharge. Psychological Medicine, 9 529539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watt, D. C., Katz, K. & Shepherd, M. (1983). The natural history of schizophrenia: a 5-year prospective follow-up of a representative sample of schizophrenics by means of a standardized clinical and social assessment. Psychological Medicine 13, 663670.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watts, C. A. H. (1973). Review of schizophrenics in a rural practice over 26 years. British Medical Journal 1, 465469.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waxler, N. E. (1979). Is outcome for schizophrenia better in nonindustrial societies? The case of Sri Lanka. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 167, 144158. (Reply, Stevenson I. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 159–160).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkinson, D. G. (1982). The suicide rate in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 140, 335338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wing, J. K. (1968). Social treatments of mental illness. In Studies in Psychiatry (ed. Shepherd, M. and Davies, D. L.), pp. 1731. Oxford University Press: London.Google Scholar
Wing, J. K. & Brown, G. W. (1970). Institutionalism and Schizophrenia. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wing, J. K., Cooper, J. & Sartorius, N. (1974). Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric Symptoms: an Instruction Manual for PSE and CATEGO Program. Cambridge University Press: London.Google Scholar
Woodworth, R. S. & Schlosberg, H. (1954). Experimental Psychology, revised edition. Methuen: London.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1979). Schizophrenia: An International Follow-up Study. John Wiley: Geneva.Google Scholar
Zubin, J., Magaziner, J. & Steinhauer, S. R. (1983). The metamorphosis of schizophrenia: from chronicity to vulnerability. Psychological Medicine 13, 551571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed