A material turn in International Relations: the 4x4, intervention and resistance

¹ Duffield, Mark, ‘From immersion to simulation: Remote methodologies and the decline of area studies’, Review of African Political Economy, 41:sup1 (2014), pp. S75–s94 , 85. See also Autesserre, Séverine, Peaceland: Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International Intervention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014); and Smirl, Lisa, Spaces of Aid: How Cars, Compounds and Hotels Shape Humanitarianism (London: Zed Books, 2015).

² Appadurai, Arjun, The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 3 .

³ Important contributions to this new materalisms literature include Coole, Diana and Frost, Samantha, ‘Introducing the new materialisms’, in Diana Coole and Samantha Frost (eds), New Materialisms: Ontology, Agency and Politics (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2010), pp. 1–46 ; Coward, Martin, ‘Between us in the city: Materiality, subjectivity, and community in the era of global urbanization’, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 30:3 (2012), pp. 468–481 ; Coward, Martin, Urbicide: The Politics of Urban Destruction (London and New York: Routledge, 2009); Lundberg, Tom and Vaughan-Williams, Nick, ‘New materialism, discourse analysis and international relations: a radical intertextual approach’, Review of International Studies, 41:1 (2015), pp. 3–25 .

⁴ Bennett, Jane, Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2010)

⁵ Mac Ginty, Roger and Richmond, Oliver, ‘The fallacy of constructing hybrid political orders: a reappraisal of the hybrid turn in peacebuilding’, International Peacekeeping, 23:2 (2016), pp. 219–239 (p. 232).

⁶ ESRC project ES/L007479/1, ‘Making Peacekeeping Data Work for the International Community’. Further information on the role of JMACs can be found in Shetler-Jones, Philip, ‘Intelligence in integrated UN peacekeeping missions: the Joint Mission Analysis Centre’, International Peacekeeping, 15:4 (2008), pp. 517–527 and Ramjoué, Melaine, ‘Improving UN intelligence through civil-military collaboration: Lessons from the Joint Mission Analysis Centres’, International Peacekeeping, 18:4 (2011), pp. 468–484 .

⁷ Leonardsson, Hanna and Rudd, Gustav, ‘The “local turn” in peacebuilding: a literature review of effective and emancipatory peacebuilding’, Third World Quarterly, 36:5 (2015), pp. 825–839 .

⁸ Jackson, Richard and Hall, Gareth, ‘Talking about terrorism: a study of vernacular discourse’, Politics, 36:3 (2016), pp. 292–307.

⁹ Roach, Stephen C., ‘Affective values in International Relations: Theorizing emotional actions and the value of resilience’, Politics, 36:4 (2016), pp. 400–412 ; Donoghue, Matthew, ‘“Common senses”: Everyday narratives of community and cohesion in New Labour’s Britain’, Politics, 36:3 (2016), pp. 262–276 ; Richmond, Oliver P. and Mitchell, Audra (eds), Hybrid Forms of Peace: From Everyday Agency to Post-Liberalism (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2011).

¹⁰ Brewer, John D., Peace Processes: A Sociological Approach (Cambridge: Polity, 2010).

¹¹ Millar, Gearoid, An Ethnographic Approach to Peacebuilding: Understanding Local Experiences in Transitional States (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014).

¹² Miller, Daniel, The Comfort of Things (Cambridge: Polity, 2008), p. 298 .

¹³ Kappler, Stefanie, Local Agency and Peacebuilding: European Union and International Engagement in Bosnia Herzegovina, Cyprus and South Africa (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2014); Chandler, David, ‘Peacebuilding and the politics of non-linearity: Rethinking “hidden” agency and “resistance”’, Peacebuilding, 1:1 (2013), pp. 17–32 .

¹⁴ Williams, John, ‘Space, scale and Just War: Meeting the challenge of humanitarian intervention and transnational terrorism’, Review of International Studies, 34:4 (2008), pp. 581–600 ; Vaughan-Williams, Nick, ‘The generalized bio-political border? Reconceptualising the limits of sovereign power’, Review of International Studies, 35:4 (2009), pp. 729–749 ; Lisle, Debbie, Holidays in the Danger Zone: Entanglements of War and Tourism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2016); Björkdahl, Annika and Buckley-Zistel, Susanne (eds), Spatialising Peace and Conflict: Mapping the Production of Place, Sites and Scales of Violences (Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016).

¹⁵ Autesserre, Peaceland and Smirl, Spaces of Aid. See also ‘Special Section: Objects and spaces of intervention: Honouring the work of Lisa Smirl (1975–2013)’, Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, 10:1 (2016); Audet, Francois, ‘Humanitarian space’, in Roger Mac Ginty and Jenny H. Peterson (eds), The Routledge Companion to Humanitarian Action (Abingdon: Routledge, 2015), pp. 141–152 .

¹⁶ See, for example, Kennedy, Caroline and Rogers, James I., ‘Virtuous drones?’, International Journal of Human Rights, 19:2 (2015), pp. 211–227 ; Wilcox, Lauren, ‘Drone warfare and the making of bodies out of place’, Critical Studies of Security, 3:1 (2015), pp. 127–131 ; Newell, Peter, ‘Democratising biotechnology? Deliberation, participation and social regulation in a neo-liberal world’, Review of International Studies, 36:2 (2010), pp. 471–491 ; and McCarthy, Daniel, Power, Information Technology, and International Relations Theory: The Power and Politics of US Foreign Policy and the Internet (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2015).

¹⁷ Liebenberg, Sybert, Haines, Richard, and Harris, Geoff, ‘A theory of war economies’, African Security Review, 24:3 (2015), pp. 307–323 (p. 308).

¹⁸ See, for example, work by Autessere, Peaceland; Nordstrom, Carolyn, Shadows of War: Violence, Power and International Profiteering in the Twenty-First Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); Malejacq, Romain and Mukhopadhyay, Dipali, ‘Yes it’s possible to do research in conflict zones: This is how’, Washington Post (5 April 2017).

¹⁹ Shankar, Shakini, ‘Metaconsumptive practices and the circulation of objectifications’, Journal of Material Culture, 11:3 (2006), pp. 293–317 (p. 294).

²⁰ MacGregor, Neil, A History of the World in 100 Objects (London: Penguin Books, 2012), p. xxi .

²¹ Graves-Brown, Paul, ‘Avtomat Kalashnikova’, Journal of Material Culture, 12:3 (2007), pp. 285–307 (p. 286).

²² Scott, James C., Domination and the Arts of Domination (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990).

²³ Cross, Jamie, ‘The 100th object: Solar lighting technology and humanitarian goods’, Journal of Material Culture, 18:4 (2013), pp. 367–387 .

²⁴ Shankar, ‘Metaconsumptive practices and the circulation of objectifications’.

²⁵ 4x4 Australia, ‘The 10 Greatest 4x4s of All Time’, 4x4 Australia (7 October 2015), available at: {http://www.4x4australia.com.au/drive/1510/the-10-greatest-4x4s-of-all-time/}.

²⁶ Walters, Ian, ‘Vietnam Zippos’, Journal of Material Culture, 2:1 (1997), pp. 61–75 (p. 63).

²⁷ Komter, Aafke, ‘Heirlooms, Nikes and bribes: Towards a sociology of things’, Sociology, 35:1 (2001), pp. 59–75 (p. 60).

²⁸ Mary Beckman, ‘How to sell Humvees to men’, Science (4 August 2005), available at: {http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2005/08/how-sell-humvees-men} last accessed 16 May 2016.

²⁹ Campbell, David, ‘The biopolitics of security: Oil, empire and the sports utility vehicle’, American Quarterly, 57:3 (2005), pp. 943–972 .

³⁰ Lauer, Josh, ‘Driven to extremes: Fear of crime and the rise of the sport utility vehicle in the United States’, Crime, Media, Culture, 1:2 (2005), pp. 149–168 .

³¹ Osborne, Samuel, ‘Why does ISIS have so many Toyota trucks’, Independent (7 October 2015), available at: {http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/why-does-isis-have-so-many-toyota-trucks-a6684336.html} last accessed 16 May 2016.

³² Ferguson, James, ‘Cultural exchange: New developments in the anthropology of commodities’, Cultural Anthropology, 3:4 (1988), pp. 488–513 .

³³ Squire, Vicki, ‘Desert “trash”: Posthumanism, border struggles, and humanitarian struggles’, Political Geography, 39 (2014), pp. 11–21 (p. 18).

³⁴ Hables Gray, Charles, ‘Post human soldiers in postmodern war’, Body and Society, 9:4 (2003), pp. 215–226 (p. 218).

³⁵ Squire, Vicki, ‘Reshaping geopolitics? The materialist challenge’, Review of International Studies, 41 (2014), pp. 139–159 .

³⁶ McCarthy, Daniel R., ‘The meaning of materiality: Reconsidering the materialism of Gramscian IR’, Review of International Studies, 37:3 (2010), pp. 1215–1234 (p. 1216).

³⁷ Ibid., p. 1223.

³⁸ Squire, ‘Reshaping geopolitics?’, p. 149.

³⁹ Ibid., p. 148.

⁴⁰ The author is grateful to Pamina Firchow for this anecdote.

⁴¹ Rizzo, Lorena, ‘Between the book and the lamp – interiors of bureaucracy and the materiality of colonial power’, African Historical Review, 45:2 (2013), pp. 31–51 .

⁴² Author interview with UN human rights monitor, 8 March 2017.

⁴³ Interview with British Government employee, 1 June 2016.

⁴⁴ Ibid.

⁴⁵ It is legal for women to drive in Sudan.

⁴⁶ Miller, The Comfort of Things.

⁴⁷ Author interviews, 9 November 2016.

⁴⁸ Zalewski, Marysia, ‘Feminist standpoint theory meets International Relations theory: a feminist vision of David and Goliath’, Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, 17:2 (1993), pp. 13–22 ; Haraway, Donna, ‘Situated knowledges: the science question in feminism and the privilege of partial perspective’, Feminist Studies, 14:3 (1988), p. 594 .

⁴⁹ See, for example, Rupert, Mark, Producing Hegemony: The Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

⁵⁰ McCarthy, ‘The meaning of materiality’, p. 1223.

⁵¹ Jenkins, Richard, ‘Imagined but not imaginary: Ethnicity and nationalism in the modern world’, in Jeremy MacClancy, Exotic No More: Anthropology on the Front Lines (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), pp. 114–128 (p. 115); Abu-Orf, Hazem, ‘Fear of difference: “Space of risk” and anxiety in violent settings’, Planning Theory, 12:2 (2012), pp. 158–176 ; Doná, Giorgia, ‘Interconnected modernities, ethnic relations and violence’, Current Sociology, 61:2 (2012), pp. 226–243 .

⁵² Toyota Europe, ‘MSF Chooses Unstoppable Land Cruiser’, Your Toyota blog (13 August 2013), available at: {http://blog.toyota.eu/your-toyota/medecins-sans-frontiers-chooses-unstoppable-land-cruiser/} last accessed 16 May 2016. See also, Lisa Smirl, Spaces of Aid, p. 103.

⁵³ Hauser, Christine, ‘Texas plumber sues car dealer after his truck ends up on Syria’s front lines’, New York Times (2015), available at: {http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/15/us/texas-plumber-sues-car-dealer-after-his-truck-ends-up-on-syrias-front-lines.html?_r=0} last accessed 16 May 2016.

⁵⁴ Roberts, Tom, ‘From “new materialism” to “machinic asemblage”’, Environment and Planning, A:44 (2012), pp. 2512–2529 (p. 2512).

⁵⁵ Ibid., p. 2515.

⁵⁶ Interview with UN employee, UN Headquarters, New York, 23 May 2016.

⁵⁷ The author is grateful to Charles Hunt for this point.

⁵⁸ A point made by Ciccantell, Paul and Smith, David A., ‘Rethinking global commodity chains: Integrating extraction, transport, and manufacturing’, International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 50:3–4 (2009), pp. 361–384 (p. 365).

⁵⁹ See, for example, work by Squire on desert ‘trash’.

⁶⁰ Interview with UN employee, UN Headquarters, New York, 23 May 2016.

⁶¹ Duffield, Mark, ‘Risk-management and the fortified aid compound: Everyday life in post-interventionary society’, Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, 4:4 (2010), pp. 453–474 (p. 470). See also, Autesserre, Peaceland.

⁶² Ciccantell and Smith, ‘Rethinking global commodity chains’, p. 366.

⁶³ Read, Roisin, Taithe, Bertrand, and Mac Ginty, Roger, ‘Data hubris? Humanitarian information systems and the mirage of technology’, Third World Quarterly, 37:8 (2016), pp. 1314–133 ; Garman, Stuart, ‘New communications technologies in emergencies’, in Mac Ginty and Peterson (eds), Routledge Companion to Humanitarian Action, pp. 440–452 ; Lindskov Jacobsen, Katja, The Politics of Humanitarian Technology: Good Intentions, Unintended Consequences, Insecurity (London: Routledge, 2015).

⁶⁴ Integrity Research and Consultancy and Axiom Monitoring and Evaluation, No Longer a Last Resort: A Review of the Remote Planning Landscape (London: UK Aid, 2014); Collinson, S. and Duffield, Mark, Paradoxes of Presence: Risk Management and Aid Culture in Challenging Environments (London: HPG/ODI, 2013).

⁶⁵ A good summary of the precarious nature of humanitarianism can be found in the Médecins Sans Frontières statement on their withdrawal from the 2016 World Humanitarian Summit: MSF, ‘MSF to pull out of World Humanitarian Summit’, MSF Press Release (5 May 2016), available at: {http://www.msf.org.uk/article/msf-to-pull-out-of-world-humanitarian-summit}.

⁶⁶ Cudworth, Erika and Hobden, Stephen, ‘Liberation for straw dogs? Old materialism, new materialism and the challenge of an emancipatory posthumanism’, Globalizations, 12:1 (2015), pp. 134–148 (p. 135).

⁶⁷ It should be noted that most studies take a moderate position.

⁶⁸ Smirl, Spaces of Aid, p. 101.

⁶⁹ Interview with former international UNAMID employee, 10 May 2016.

⁷⁰ Interview with UN employee, UN Headquarters, New York, 23 May 2016.

⁷¹ Richmond, Oliver P., ‘De-romanticising the local, de-mystifying the international: Hybridity in Timor Leste and the Solomon Islands’, The Pacific Review, 24:1 (2011), pp. 115–136 .

⁷² Mac Ginty, Roger and Richmond, Oliver P., ‘The fallacy of constructing hybrid political orders: a reappraisal of the hybrid turn in peacebuilding’, International Peacekeeping, 23:2 (2016), pp. 219–239 .

⁷³ The much debated literature on the hybrid peace is useful here.

⁷⁴ Humphries, Clare and Smith, Aaron C. T., ‘Talking objects: Towards a post-social research framework for exploring object narratives’, Organization, 21:4 (2014), pp. 477–494 (p. 479).

⁷⁵ Suchman, Lucy, ‘Affiliative objects’, Organization, 12:3 (2005), pp. 379–399 .

⁷⁶ The author is indebted to Charles Hunt for this point.

⁷⁷ Trentmann, Frank, Empire of Things: How We Became Consumers, From the Fifteenth Century to the Twenty-First (London: Allen Lane), p. 134 .

⁷⁸ Cited in ibid., p. 151.

⁷⁹ Daya, Shari, ‘Beyond exploitation/empowerment: Re-imagining Southern producers in commodity stories’, Social & Cultural Geography, 15:7 (2014), pp. 812–833 (p. 814).

⁸⁰ Interview with former UNAMID national staff member, 4 May 2016.

⁸¹ Daya, ‘Beyond exploitation/empowerment’, p. 816.

⁸² Smith, Adam, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Kindle edn, Edinburgh: William Strahan and Thomas Cadell, 1776), ch 1: ‘Of the division of labour’, no pagination.

⁸³ UNHCR, ‘Audit of Operations in Darfur (AR2006-115-03)’ (7 February 2007), available at: {https://wikileaks.org/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees:_Audit_of_Operations_in_Darfur_(AR2006-115-03),_7_Feb_2007} last accessed 10 August 2007.

⁸⁴ Interview with former UNAMID national staff member, 4 May 2016.

⁸⁵ Ibid.

⁸⁶ ‘Janjaweed in Darfur reconstituted as the Rapid Reaction Force’, Sudan Tribune (2 March 2014), available at: {http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article50134} last accessed 10 August 2016.

⁸⁷ Office of the Prosecutor, ‘Nineteenth Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court to the UN Security Council Pursuit of UNSCR 1593’ (2005), available at: {https://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/otp/otp-19th-UNSC-Dafur-06-14-Eng.pdf} last accessed 10 August 2016.

⁸⁸ Interview with former international UNAMID employee, 10 May 2016.

⁸⁹ Interview with UN employee, UN Headquarters, New York, 23 May 2016.

⁹⁰ African Development Fund, ‘Republic of Sudan: Capacity-Building for Poverty Reduction and Good Governance – Appraisal Report, Governance, Economic and Financial Management Department’ (November 2016), available at: {http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/Sudan_-_Capacity_Building_for_Poverty_Reduction_and_Good_Governance_-_Appraisal_Report.pdf} last accessed 10 August 2016.

⁹¹ The author is grateful to Charles Hunt for this point.

⁹² Bhabha, Homi K., The Location of Culture (Abingdon: Routledge, 2004).

⁹³ Interview with former international UNAMID employee, 10 May 2016.

⁹⁴ Millar, , An Ethnographic Approach to Peacebuilding; Marie Smyth and Gillian Robinson (eds), Researching Violently Divided Societies: Ethical and Methodological Issues (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2003).

⁹⁵ Monahan, Torin and Fisher, Jill A., ‘Strategies for obtaining access to secretive or guarded organizations’, Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 44:6 (2015), pp. 709–736 .

⁹⁶ Brigg, Morgan and Bleiker, Roland, ‘Autoethnographic International Relations: Exploring self as a source of knowledge’, Review of International Studies, 36:3 (2010), pp. 779–796 .

⁹⁷ Dillon, Brian, ‘Using mobile phones to collect panel data in developing countries’, Journal of International Development, 24 (2012), pp. 518–527 ; Demombynes, Gabriel, Gubbins, Paul, and Romeo, Alessandro, ‘Challenges and Opportunities of Mobile Phone-Based Data Collection: Evidence from South Sudan’, Policy Research Working Paper (The World Bank Africa Region Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit, 2013); Sugie, Naomi F., ‘Utilizing smartphones to study disadvantaged and hard-to-reach groups’, Sociological Methods and Research (2016), Online first, pp. 1–34 .

⁹⁸ Bott, Maja and Young, Gregor, ‘The role of crowdsourcing for better governance in international development’, Praxis: The Fletcher Journal of Human Security, 23 (2012), pp. 47–70 .

⁹⁹ Van der Windt, Peter and Humphreys, Macartan, ‘Crowdseeding in eastern Congo using cell phones to collect conflict events data in real time’, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 60:4 (2016), pp. 748–781 .

¹⁰⁰ De Leeuw, Edith and Hox, Joop, ‘Mixed-mode surveys: When and why’, in E. De Leeuw, J. Hox, and D. Dillman, International Handbook of Survey Methodology (New York: Psychology Press, 2008).

¹⁰¹ Luttrell, Wendy, ‘“Good enough” methods for ethnographic research’, Harvard Educational Review, 70:4 (2000), pp. 499–523 .

¹⁰² Conflict Sensitivity Consortium, ‘Conflict Sensitivity Consortium Benchmarking Paper’, Draft (29 April 2009), available at: {http://local.conflictsensitivity.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/CSA-Benchmarking-paper-full.pdf}; Causton, Jennifer, ‘The challenge of mainstreaming conflict sensitivity: PCIA methodologies and the organizational culture of NGOs’, ATLIS Journal, 5 (2009), available at: {http://atlismta.org/online-journals/0809-journal-intervention/};

Furlong, Gary T., The Conflict Resolution Toolbox: Models and Maps for Analysing, Diagnosing and Resolving Conflict (Toronto, ON: Wiley, 2005).

¹⁰³ De Waale, Alex, The Real Politics of the Horn of Africa: Money, War, and the Business of Power (Cambridge: Polity, 2015), pp. 65–66 .

¹⁰⁴ Reyna, Stephen P., ‘The disasters of war in Darfur, 1950–2004’, Third World Quarterly, 31:8 (2010), pp. 1297–1320 .

¹⁰⁵ Verhoeven, Harry, Kemunto Bosire, Lydiah, and Srinivasan, Sharath, ‘Understanding Sudan’s saviors and survivors: Darfur in the crossfire between humanitarian fundamentalism and Khartoum’s divide and rule’, Review of African Political Economy, 36:122 (2009), pp. 630–635 .

¹⁰⁶ Slim, Hugo, Killing Civilians: Methods, Madness, and Morality in War (London: Hurst, 2007), p. 106 .

¹⁰⁷ United Nations, ‘International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur: Report to the Secretary General, 25 January 2005’ (Geneva: United Nations, 2005), available at: {http://www.un.org/news/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf}.

¹⁰⁸ Interview with former UNAMID national staff member, 4 May 2016.

¹⁰⁹ All quotations are verbatim from the security incident log.

¹¹⁰ Interview with former UNAMID national staff member, 4 May 2016.

¹¹¹ Security Council Report, ‘March 2008 Monthly Forecast: Darfur/Sudan, Security Council Report’ (2008), available at: {http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/monthly-forecast/2008-03/lookup_c_glKWLeMTIsG_b_3909133.php?print=true} last accessed 8 August 2016.

¹¹² Bashir Hassan, Abdulla, ‘Transportation infrastructure’, in Hamid Eltgani Ali (ed.), Darfur’s Political Economy: A Quest for Development (Abingdon: Routledge, 2014), pp. 243–265 (p. 250).

¹¹³ UN Joint Logistics Centre, ‘Sudan Logistics Bulletin 84’ (January 2007), available at: {http://www.logcluster.org/sites/default/files/attachments/unjlc_sdn_monthly-bulletin_84_january_pub_070131.pdf} last accessed 8 August 2016.

¹¹⁴ Interview with UN employee, UN Headquarters, New York, 23 May 2016.

¹¹⁵ Walters, ‘Vietnam Zippos’.

¹¹⁶ Slim, Hugo, ‘Wonderful work: Globalising the ethics of humanitarian action’, in Mac Ginty and Peterson (eds), The Routledge Companion to Humanitarian Action, pp. 13–25 .

¹¹⁷ Ramsbotham, Oliver, Woodhouse, Tom, and Miall, Hugh, Contemporary Conflict Resolution (4th edn, Cambridge: Polity, 2015), pp. 10–11 .

¹¹⁸ Hables Grey, Charles, ‘Posthuman soldiers in postmodern war’, Body and Society, 9:4 (2003), pp. 215–226 (pp. 224–5).

¹¹⁹ Roden, David, Posthuman Life: Philosophy at the Edge of the Human (New York: Routledge 2015); Campbell, Heidi A., ‘Framing the human-technology relationship: How religious digital creative engage posthuman narratives’, Social Compass, 63:3 (2016), pp. 302–318 .

¹²⁰ Cudworth, Erika and Hobden, Steve, ‘The posthuman way of war’, Security Dialogue, 46:6 (2015), pp. 513–529 (p. 524).

¹²¹ Dittmer, Jason, ‘Geopolitical assemblages and complexity’, Progress in Human Geography, 38:3 (2014), pp. 385–401 (p. 387).

¹²² Squire, ‘Desert “trash”’.

¹²³ van der Zaag, Annette-Carina, ‘On posthuman subjectivity’, Journal of Cultural Economy, 9:3 (2016), pp. 330–336 (p. 330).

¹²⁴ Ibid., p. 332.

¹²⁵ Ayers, Alison J., ‘Sudan’s uncivil war: the global–historical constitution of political violence’, Review of African Political Economy, 37:124 (2010), pp. 153–171 (p. 154); Sørbø, Gunnar M., ‘Local violence and international intervention in Sudan’, Review of African Political Economy, 37:124 (2010), pp. 173–186 .