1 See Haym, Rudolf, Hegel und seine Zeit (Berlin: Rudolf Gaertner, 1857), pp. 357–91.
2 See Carritt's, E. F. contributions in Hegel's Political Philosophy, ed. Kaufmann, Walter (New York: Atherton, 1970); Popper, Karl, The Open Society and its Enemies (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962), vol. 2, chap. 12. See also Sidney Hook's contributions in Hegel's Political Philosophy.
3 Among others, see Bosanquet, Bernard, The Philosophical Theory of the State (London: Macmillan, 1951), pp. 229–74; contributions by T. M. Knox, Shlomo Avineri, Z. A. Pelczynski, and W. Kaufmann, in Hegel's Political Philosophy; Pelczynski's, “Introductory Essay,” in Hegel's Political Writings, trans. Knox, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964); Avineri, , Hegel's Theory of the Modern State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972); Ritter, Joachim, Hegel and the French Revolution, trans. Winfield, R. D. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1982); d'Hondt, Jacques, Hegel and His Time: Berlin, 1818–31, trans. Burbidge, J. (Lewiston, NY: Broadview Press, 1988); Ilting's, K.-H. introductions to vols. 1 and 4 of Hegel's Vorlesungen über Rechtsphilosophie, 1818–31, ed. IIting, (Stuttgart: Fromann, 1973); Perperzak, Adriaan, Philosophy and Politics: A Commentary on the Preface to Hegel's Philosophy of Right (Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1987), pp. 15–31.
4 Wood, Allen, “Editor's Introduction” to Hegel's Elements of the Philosophy of Right, ed. Wood, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. ix; see also xxxi n.10. But for a recent dredging up of the old charge that Hegel is a reactionary defender of the Prussian state, see Hirst, Paul, “Endism,” London Review of Books, 23 11 1989, quoted in Fukuyama, Francis, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: The Free Press, 1992), p. 349n.14. Even Alan Ryan portrays Hegel as being “illiberal” in his review of Fukuyama's book; see “Professor Hegel Goes to Washington,” The New York Review Books, 26 March 1992, pp. 8, 10.
5 Taylor, Charles, Hegel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975). See also Taylor's abridgement of this book, Hegel and Modern Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), in which the communitarian themes emerge even more distinctly.
6 See Taylor, , Hegel and the Modern Spirit, pp. 1–14.
7 In Patterns of Morality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 99–107, Charles Larmore interprets Hegel in an even more communitarian direction than Taylor, albeit with a critical intention. He criticizes Taylor for allowing that the idea of rational autonomy plays any significant role in Hegel's political philosophy and for thus underplaying “the extent to which Hegel rejected the ideal of autonomy” (168n.14).
8 Smith, Steven B., Hegel's Critique of Liberalism: Rights in Context (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
10 Taylor has made it increasingly clear that communitarianism is not necessarily antithetical to liberal politics; “ontological issues” must not be confused with “advocacy issues.” See his “Cross-Purposes: The Liberal-Communitarian Debate,” in Liberalism and the Moral Life, ed. Rosenblum, Nancy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 159–82.
11 Smith, , Hegel's Critique of Liberalism, p. 233.
12 The interpretation with which mine bears the closest affinity is that of Wood, Allen, Hegel's Ethical Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). It also shares a great deal with the general view of Hegel that Robert Pippin has elaborated in a number of writings, beginning with Hegel's Idealism: The Satisfactions of Self-Consciousness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); see especially his suggestive remarks on Hegel's relation to the Kantian and Enlightenment idea of autonomy in Modernism as a Philosophical Problem: On the Dissatisfactions of European High Culture (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), pp. 8–15, 46–79.
13 Wood, , Hegel's Ethical Thought, p. 258. Ilting, K.-H., “The Structure of Hegel's Philosophy of Right,” in Hegel's Political Philosophy: Problems and Perspectives, ed. Pelczynski, Z. A. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), takes a similar position with respect to Hegel's relationship to liberalism, pointing out that, while Hegel's political philosophy incorporates a number of liberal principles, it ultimately rejects the theoretical foundations of liberalism. IIting, however, ends up exaggerating Hegel's theoretical affinities with ancient political philosophy.
14 Hegel, G. W. F., The Philosophy of History, trans. Sibree, J. (New York: Dover, 1956), p. 452; Werke, ed. Moldenhauer, E. and Michel, K. M. (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1971), 12: 534.
15 References to Hegel's Philosophy of Right (PR) appear in the text in parentheses. For the most part I have relied on Nisbet's, H. B. English translation, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, ed. Wood, Allen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). For the German, see Moldenhauer, and Michel, , Werke: 7.
16 For this analysis of freedom, see the Introduction to PR in general, especially par. 15. See also Hegel, G. W. F., Introduction to The Philosophy of History, trans. Rauch, Leo (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1988), pp. 41–44; Werke 12: 55–59.
17 PR, par. 29R. For Kant's exact formulation of his definition of right, see Kant's Political Writings, ed. Reiss, Hans (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 133.
18 Berlin, Isaiah, “Two Concepts of Liberty,” in Four Essays on Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 145.
20 Hegel, G. W. F., “The Positivity of the Christian Religion,“ in Early Theological Writings, trans. Knox, T. M. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), pp. 156–57; Werke, 1: 206.
21 On this Kantian revolution, see Hegel's letter to Schelling, 16 April 1795, in Hegel, : The Letters, trans. Butler, C. and Seiler, C. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), pp. 35–36.
22 Hegel, G. W.F., “Berne Fragments,” in Three Essays, 1793–95, trans. Fuss, P. and Dobbins, J. (Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 1984), p. 102; Werke, 1: 100–101.
23 Hegel, G. W. F., Natural Law: The Scientific Ways of Treating Natural Law, Its Place in Moral Philosophy, and Its Relation to the Positive Science of Law, trans. Knox, T. M. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975), pp. 92–95, 99–100; Werke, 2: 480–84, 489.
24 Hegel, G. W. F., Hegel and the Human Spirit: The Jena Lectures on the Philosophy of Spirit of 1805–6, trans. Rauch, Leo (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1983), 171; Gesammelte Werke, ed. Wissenschaften, Rheinische-Westfaelische Akademie der (Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 1968–), 8: 276. See also Natural Law, p. 93 (Werke, 2: 481–82); PR, par. 324R. It should perhaps be pointed out here that, though Hegel continues to speak of the “ethical moment of war” in PR, the idea of individuals making heroic sacrifices on behalf of the state plays a much smaller role in this work than it does in his earlier writings. See in particular what he says about the generally nonheroic and everyday character of patriotism (PR, par. 268R).
25 See Hegel, G. W. F., System of Ethical Life, trans. Harris, H. S and Knox, T. M. (Albany: SUNY Press, 1979), pp. 137–42 (System der Sittlichkeit, ed. Lasson, G. [Hamburg: Felix Meiner, 1967], pp. 46–52); First Philosophy of Spirit, trans. Harris, H. S. (Albany: SUNY Press, 1979), pp. 236–41 (Gesammelte Werke, 6: 307–14); Philosophy of Spirit of 1805–1806, pp. 110–18 (Gesammelte Werke, 8: 213–21).
26 Hegel, G. W. F., Lectures on the History of Philosophy, trans. Haldane, E. S. and Simson, F. H. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1968), 3: 401–402; Werke, 20: 306–308. See Rousseau, , Social Contract, I, 4.
27 See the Social Contract, I, 6; III, 12–15.
29 Hegel, G. W. F., Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. Miller, A. V. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), pp. 357–59; Werke, 3: 432–36.
30 Philosophy of History, p. 452; Werke, 12: 534.
31 Philosophy of History, p. 452; Werke, 12: 534–35.
32 Introduciton to The Philosophy of History, p. 41; Werke, 12: 55–56.
33 Introduciton to The Philosophy of History, pp. 41–42; Werke, 12: 56.
34 See The German Constitution, in Hegel's Political Writings, trans. Knox, T. M. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), pp. 158, 160, 202–6, 217, 234, 237, 241; Werke, 1: 477–78, 479–80, 532–37, 550–51, 571–72, 575, 580.
35 Hyppolite, Jean, Genesis and Structure of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. Cherniak, S. and Heckman, J. (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1974), p. 331.
36 Philosophy of Spirit of 1805–6, p. 160; Gesammelte Werke, 8: 263.
37 Shklar, Judith, “Hegel's ‘Phenomenology’: An Elegy for Hellas,” in Hegel's Political Philosophy: Problems and Perspectives, p. 74. This distorting understanding of the Phenomenology as an elegy or “lament” for Hellas thoroughly informs Shklar's, book, Freedom and Independence: A Study of the Political Ideas of Hegel's ‘Phenomenology of Mind’; (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); see especially pp. 69–95. Patrick Riley seems to follow Shklar in understanding the Phenomenology as an assault on modern subjectivity and individualism; see Will and Political Legitimacy: A Critical Exposition of Social Contract Theory in Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Kant, and Hegel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 164, 176–89, 190–91, 197–98.
38 Schmidt, James, “Recent Hegel Literature: The Jena Period and the Phenomenology of Spirit,” Telos 48 (Summer 1981), p. 141.
39 Introduction to The Philosophy of History, p. 27; Werke, 12: 39.
40 The German Constitution, pp. 163–64; Werke, 1: 484. Compare Tocqueville, on “administrative decentralization,” in Democracy in America, vol. 1, pt. 1, chap. 5.
41 Frederick Neuhouser, review of Hegel's Ethical Thought, by Wood, Allen, Journal of Philosophy 89 (1992): 320. Wood's treatment of this issue can be found in Hegel's Ethical Thought, pp. 21, 28–29, 237–38, 258–59.
42 The most influential attempt to interpret Hegel as viewing individuals ultimately as vehicles of cosmic Geist remains Taylor's Hegel.
43 See Larmore, , Patterns of Morality, pp. 91–107.
44 See, e.g., the Preface to PR.
45 See Oakeshott, Michael, On Human Conduct (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), pp. 256–63.
46 I have taken this quote from Oakeshott's, recently published Morality and Politics in Modern Europe: The Harvard Lectures, ed. Letwin, Shirley (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993), p. 85, though Oakeshott speaks of the historic disposition to individuality in a number of places, notably, in the essays “On Being Conservative– and “The Masses in Representative Democracy,” both published in Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays, ed. Fuller, Timothy (Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1991), and in the third essay of On Human Conduct.
47 Oakeshott, , Morality and Politics in Modern Europe, pp. 83–85.
