Parliamentary Politics and the Development of the Green Party in West Germany

^1. See: Smith, Gordon, Politics in Western Europe, 4th ed. (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1984) p. 93.

^2. Zeuner, Bodo, “Parlamentarisierung der Grünen,” Prokla 61 (1985): 13–18.

^3. See: Daalder, Hans, “The Comparative Study of European Parties and Party Systems: An Overview” in Western European Party Systems, ed. Daalder, Hans and Mair, Peter (London: Sage, 1983), pp. 21–24.

^4. During April and May 1985, open-ended interviews were conducted by the author with eighteen Green deputies, nine staff assistants, and eight party officials or workers at the federal and state levels. Seven were interviewed in Bonn, eight in Baden-Württemberg, ten in Hesse, and ten in Hamburg. During June 1987, the author interviewed nine deputies, fifteen staff assistants, and seven party officials or workers at the federal and state levels. Nine were interviewed in Bonn, four in Hesse, four in West Berlin, nine in Lower Saxony, and five in Hamburg.

^5. Duverger, Maurice, Political Parties (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1963), p. xxiii.

^6. Epstein, Leon D., Political Parties in Western Democracies (New York: Praeger, 1967), pp. 19–26.

^7. Sartori, Giovanni, Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976): 20–23.

^8. Duverger, , Political Parties, pp. xxiv–xxx.

^9. Epstein, , Political Parties in Western Democracies, pp. 27–45.

^10. Duverger, , Political Parties, pp. xxxiv–xxxv. Although Janda and King find many of Duverger's hypotheses supported by their data regarding 147 parties, the relationship between outside origins and centralization of the party is not statistically significant; see: Janda, Kenneth and King, Desmond S., “Formalizing and Testing Duverger's Theories on Political Parties,” Comparative Political Studies 18, no. 2 (07 1985): 139–69.

^11. Epstein, , Political Parties in Western Democracies, pp. 126–29, 257–60.

^12. Ware, Alan, “Introduction: Parties under Electoral Competition,” in Political Parties: Electoral Change & Structural Response, ed. Ware, Alan (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987), pp. 5–12.

^13. Sartori, , Parties and Party Systems, pp. 21–22.

^14. Michels, Robert, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (New York: The Free Press, 1962), pp. 364–71.

^15. Ibid., p. 368.

^16. von Beyme, Klaus, Political Parties in Western Democracies (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985), p. 238.

^17. Harmel, Robert, “Michels £ 75: The Iron Law of Oligarchy Revisited” (Paper presented at 1987 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, Illinois).

^18. McKenzie, Robert T., British Political Parties, 2nd ed. (New York: Praeger, 1963), pp. 644–45.

^19. Duverger, , Political Parties, p. 151.

^20. Ibid., pp. 152–56.

^21. Ibid., p. 190

^22. Ibid., p. 195.

^23. Ibid., pp. 196–97.

^24. Von Beyme, , Political Parties in Western Democracies, pp. 320–322.

^25. McKenzie, , British Political Parties, p. 635.

^26. Byrd, Peter, “The Labour Party in Britain” in The Future of Social Democracy, ed. Paterson, William E. and Thomas, Alastair H. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 90.

^27. Von Beyme, , Political Parties in Western Democracies, p. 322.

^28. Cited by Brady, David W. and Bullock, Charles S. III, “Party and Factions within Legislatures” in Handbook of Legislative Research, ed. Loewenberg, Gerhard, Patterson, Samuel C., and Jewell, Malcolm E. (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. 142.

^29. Hine, David, “Leaders and Followers: Democracy and Manageability in the Social Democratic Parties of Western Europe” in Paterson and Thomas, Social Democracy, pp. 277–79.

^30. Duverger, , Political parties, pp. 197–202.

^31. Leonardi, Robert, Nanetti, Raffaella, and Pasquino, Gianfranco, “Institutionalization of Parliament and Parliamentarization of Parties in Italy,” Legislative Studies Quarterly 3, no. 2 (02 1978): 181–83.

^32. Kitschelt, Herbert P., “Left-Libertarian Parties: Explaining Innovation in Competitive Party Systems,” World Politics 40, no. 2 (01 1988): 194–234.

^33. von Beyme, Klaus, “Die Ökologische Bewegung zwischen Bürgerinitiativen und Parteiorganisation,” in Bürgerinitiativen und Repräsentatives System, ed. Guggenberger, Bernd and Kempf, Udo, 2nd ed. (Opladen: West-deutscher Verlag, 1984), pp. 373–74.

^34. Hallensleben, Anna, Von der Grünen Liste zur Grünen Partei? (Göttingen: Muster-Schmidt Verlag, 1984), p. 258.

^35. Blondel, Jean, Political Parties (London: Wildwood House, 1978), p. 114.

^36. Poguntke, Thomas, “The Organization of a Participatory Party—The German Greens,” European Journal of Political Research 15, no. 6 (1987): 615.

^37. Bühnemann, Michael, Wendt, Michael, und Wituschek, Jürgen, AL: Die Alternative Liste Berlin (Berlin: Lit Pol Verlagsgesellschaft, 1984), pp. 91–92; Alternative Liste Satzung (24 March 1987).

^38. “Die Satzung des Landesverbandes der Grünen Niedersachsen.”

^39. Jänicke, Martin, “Parlamentarische Entwarnungseffekte,” Bericht der Abgeordnetenhausfraktion: Über die Arbeit von Mai 1981-Mai 1982 (Alternative Liste), p. 7.

^40. Langguth, Gerd, The Green Factor in German Politics (Boulder: Westview, 1986), p. 47.

^41. See note 4.

^42. Papadakis, Elim, “The Green Party in Contemporary West German Politics,” Political Quarterly 54, no. 3 (07 1983): 304.

^43. Harmel, , “Michels £ 75: The Iron Law of Oligarchy Revisited,” pp. 19–21.

^44. Conradt, David P., The German Polity, 3rd ed. (New York.: Longman, 1986), pp. 57–58.

^45. Loewenberg, Gerhard, Parliament in the German Political System (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967).

^46. Badura, Bernhard and Reese, Jürgen, Jung-parlamentarier in Bonn—Ihre Sozialisation im Deutschen Bundestag (Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog Verlag, 1976), pp. 43, 57, 67.

^47. Lowenberg, Gerhard and Patterson, Samuel C., Comparing Legislatures (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), p. 266.

^48. Polsby, Nelson W., “Legislatures,” in Handbook of Political Science Volume 5: Governmental Institutions and Processes, ed. Greenstein, Fred I. and Polsby, Nelson W. (Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley Publishing 1975), pp. 293, 296–97.

^49. von Beyme, Klaus, The Political System of the Federal Republic of Germany (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983), pp. 124–28.

^50. Paterson, William E. and Webber, Douglas, “The Federal Republic of Germany: The Re-emergent Opposition,” in Opposition in Western Europe, ed. Kolinsky, Eva (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987), p. 158.

^51. Veen, Hans-Joachim, Opposition im Bundestag (Bonn: Eichholz Verlag, 1976), pp. 15–16.

^52. Friedrich, Manfred, “Parlamentarische Opposition in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Wandel und Konstanz,” in Parlamentarische Opposition, ed. Oberreuter, Heinrich (Hamburg: Hoffmann & Campe Verlag, 1975), pp. 260–61.

^53. Schneider, Herbert, Länderparlamentarismus in der Bundesrepublik (Opladen: Leske & Budrich, 1979), pp. 44–55.

^54. Veen, Hans-Joachim, “The Coloration of the Greens,” German Comments, April 1985, p. 25; however, recent surveys indicate that supporters of the right-wing Republicans (Die Republikaner), who received 7.5 percent of the votes in the January 1989 Berlin elections, are significantly more negative in their views of the West German political system than are the Greens' supporters (Der Spiegel, Nr. 21 [22 May 1989], pp. 36, 41).

^55. Oswalt, Walter, “Die politische Logik der Sonnenblume,” in Was sollen die Grünen im Parlament? ed. Kraushaar, Wolfgang (Frankfurt: Verlag Neue Kritik, 1983), p. 103.

^56. Greens have also been elected to the state parliaments in Bavaria (1986) and in Rhineland-Palatinate (1987).

^57. The Bremen Green List was denied Fraktion status and privileges by the governing SPD. The BGL's small parliamentary group splintered in 1982. The BGL failed to clear the 5 percent threshold in the September 1983 Bremen elections while the new state party of the Greens elected five deputies.

^58. The author posed the comparative question to Hesse, Hamburg, and Baden-Württemberg Greens interviewed in April-May 1985.

^59. Bühnemann, , AL: Die Alternative Liste, p. 56.

^60. Interview with Dr. Manuel Kiper, Lower Saxony Green party manager: Hanover, 3 June 1987.

^61. Interviews with GAL Fraktion and party executive board members, Hamburg, 22–25 May 1985.

^62. Feminists successfully pushed an all-female candidates list for the November 1986 Hamburg elections which resulted in thirteen women being elected as GAL Landtag deputies.

^63. The seventh deputy had replaced a person who resigned after serving only one year. His decision not to rotate was later supported by the majority at a Realos (realist) dominated Hesse party assembly.

^64. Hamburg parliamentary statistics for June 1982-November 1986 were provided by Karl-Heinz Stahnke of the Bürgerschqftskanzlei. There were nine GAL deputies between June and December 1982 and eight deputies between December 1982 and November 1986, which counted as 7.5 percent and 6.7 percent of the total membership respectively.

^65. Rechenschaftsbericht der Fraktion der Alternativen Liste Berlin 1983/1984 (Berlin: November 1984), pp. 48–49.

^66. Ibid., pp. 67–81.

^67. “Die Grünen im Bundestag,” 2. Rechenschaftsbericht (November 1984), p. 11.

^68. Until the SPD-AL coalition in Berlin in 1989, only the Hesse Greens had attained the symbolic recognition of a vice-presidency in parliament, 1982–87. The Bundestag Greens unsuccessfully challenged their exclusion from the intelligence services control subcommittee (board) in the Federal Constitutional Court. In Bremen, a Green deputy has held since 1987 a seat on such an oversight subcommittee.

^69. The CDU rather than having Arbeitskreise has organized its specialized policy work according to eighteen (more focused) Arbeitsgruppen.

^70. Die Grünen im Bundestag, Bericht zur Lage der Fraktion (March 1984), p. 19.

^71. Frankland, E. Gene, “Green Politics and Alternative Economics,” German Studies Review 11, no. 1 (02 1988): 111–32.

^72. Kolinsky, Eva, “The West German Greens—A Woman's Party,” Parliamentary Affairs 41, no. 1 (01 1988): 142–43.

^73. Interviews with Renate Mohr, the Bundestag Greens' press secretary, Bonn: May 1985 and June 1987.

^74. Interview with Robert Camp, federal Green party archivist, Bonn: June 1987.

^75. Frankland, E. Gene, “The Role of the Greens in West German Parliamentary Politics,” Review of Politics 50, no. 1 (1988): 111.

^76. Ibid., pp. 111–12.

^77. Schrüfer, Gertrud, Die Grünen im Deutschen Bundestag: Anspruch und Wirklichkeit (Nürnberg: Pauli-Balleis-Verlag, 1985), p. 61.

^78. Frankfurter Rundschau, 27 May 1988.

^79. Die Tageszeitung, 6 June 1988, p. 5; almost unnoticed by outsiders, the May 1989 federal party assembly's majority voted against the position of the Bundestag Greens (Weser-Kurier, 22 May 1989, p. 1).

^80. As of August 1989, the Greens are represented in eight of the eleven state parliaments. They have no deputies in Schleswig-Holstein, North Rhine-Westphalia, and the Saarland.

^81. Schaeffer, Roland, “Basisdemokratie. Oder: wenn der Löwenzahn nicht waschen will, müssen wireben Kopfsalat essen,” Kursbuch, Nr. 74 (December 1983), pp. 84, 87.

^82. Trends toward “partial” professionalization are also evident at the state level. For example, in May 1989, the AL membership assembly approved the equivalent of two full-time salaries for AL executive board members but left the precise distribution of the amount to the executive board itself (Die Tageszeitung, 29 May 1989, p. 2).

^83. See, for example, Der Spiegel Nr. 26 (27 June 1988), pp. 27, 30 and Frankfurter Rundschau, 14 June 1988. Only sixty AL members out of three thousand attended its September 1988 assembly (Die Tageszeitung, 13 February 1989, p.3). On the other hand, at the AL's March 1989 assembly 1,500 members turned out to consider the SPD-AL coalition agreement (Die Grünen [Wochenzeitung] Nr. 11 [18 March 1989], p. 1).

^84. The Aufbruch group reached its goal of having the necessary one-third of the Greens' local associations request a federal membership ballot on rival manifestos. However, on 29 April 1989, the Greens' federal arbitration board (Bundesschiedsgericht) ruled against the balloting because its format was counter to a strict interpretation of the party's charter (Die Tageszeitung, 2 May 1989, p. 4). Leaders of the Aufbruch are currently seeking ways around this legalistic roadblock.

^85. “Zukunft ohne Lobby: Manifestentwurf der Gruppe ‘Grüner Aufbruch 88,’” Die Grünen (Wochenzeitung), Nr. 27 (9 07 1988), pp. 4, 9–11.

^86. “Sein oder Nichtsein: Manifestentwurf der ‘Realos’,” Die Grünen (Wochenzeitung), Nr. 28 (16 07 1988), pp. 4–5.

^87. Between December 1988 and March 1989 an interim (caretaker) executive board served. The recently elected board represents the Greens' diverse groups but excludes “high profile” factional leaders. Disgruntled prominent fundamentalists have begun to explore organizational options beyond the Green party (Arbeiterkampf, Nr. 306 [12 May 1989]).

^88. “Manifest gegen Urabstimmung,” Die Grünen (Wochenzeitung) Nr. 18 (6 05 1989), p. 5;Reents, Jürgen and Geese, Astrid, “Modernisierung nicht mit uns,” Die Grünen (Wochenzeitung) Nr. 19 (13 05 1989), p. 3.

^89. “Basis-Kontakt,” Die Grünen (Wochenzeitung), Nr. 22 (3 06 1989), p. 2.