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⁴ Crutzen, P.J., ‘Geology of Mankind’ (2002) 415(6867) Nature, p. 23Google Scholar; Steffen, W., Crutzen, P.J. & McNeill, J.R., ‘The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature?’ (2007) 36(8) Ambio, pp. 614–21Google Scholar; Steffen, W. et al. et al., ‘The Anthropocene: From Global Change to Planetary Stewardship’ (2011) 40(7) Ambio, pp. 739–61CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Steffen, W., Grinevald, J., Crutzen, P. & McNeill, J., ‘The Anthropocene: Conceptual and Historical Perspectives’ (2011) 369 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, pp. 842–67.Google Scholar

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¹⁵ Jóhannsdóttir, Cresswell & Bridgewater, n. 12 above, at p. 141.

¹⁶ Carlman, n. 12 above; Ebbesson, n. 12 above; Jóhannsdóttir, Cresswell & Bridgewater, ibid.

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¹⁹ See, e.g., Haas, Keohane & Levy, n. 6 above.

²⁰ See, e.g., Lafferty, W. & Hovden, E., ‘Environmental Policy Integration: Towards an Analytical Framework’ (2003) 12(3) Environmental Politics, pp. 1–22.Google Scholar

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²³ Ibid. The scientists acknowledged that there could be need for additional planetary boundaries or the reformulation of existing ones as scientific research will continue to uncover more insights into the dynamics of the Earth system. See, e.g., Steffen, W., Rockström, J. & Costanza, R., ‘How Defining Planetary Boundaries Can Transform Our Approach to Growth’ (2011) 2(3) Solutions, available at: http://www.thesolutionsjournal.com/node/935.Google Scholar

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²⁸ Estimates indicate that the first three of the nine boundaries listed have already been crossed. For a detailed description of the method used to quantify planetary boundaries, see Rockström, J. et al. et al., ‘Planetary Boundaries: Exploring the Safe Operating Space for Humanity’ (2009) 14(2) Ecology and Society, available at: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32.Google Scholar

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³¹ Note that the planetary boundaries approach says nothing about the distribution of affluence and technologies among human societies. Thus, remaining within planetary boundaries is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for sustainable development: Steffen, Rockström & Costanza, n. 23 above.

³² See, e.g., Bosselmann, K., The Principle of Sustainability: Transforming Law and Governance (Ashgate, 2008)Google Scholar; Voigt, n. 30 above; Lafferty & Hovden, n. 20 above.

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³⁵ Kant, I., Die Metaphysik der Sitten, Bd. VI (Akademieausgabe, 1907).Google Scholar

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³⁹ In fact, each proposed boundary position assumes that no other boundaries are transgressed: Rockström et al., n. 3 above. See also Galaz, V. et al. et al., ‘Institutional and Political Leadership Dimensions of Cascading Ecological Crises’ (2011) 89(2) Public Administration, pp. 361–80.Google Scholar

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⁴³ Snyder, P.K., Foley, J.A., Hitchman, M.H. & Delire, C.J., ‘Analyzing the Effects of Complete Tropical Forest Removal on the Regional Climate Using a Detailed Three-dimensional Energy Budget: An Application to Africa’ (2004) 109Journal of Geophysical Research, D21102Google Scholar; Lenton, T.M. et al. et al., ‘Tipping Elements in the Earth’s Climate System’ (2008) 105(6) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, pp. 1786–93.Google Scholar

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⁴⁷ Keohane & Victor, n. 45 above.

⁴⁸ G. Handl, ‘Transboundary Impacts’, in Bodansky, Brunnée & Hey, n. 44 above, pp. 531–49.

⁴⁹ Convention between the United States and Other Powers Providing for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals, Washington, DC (US), 7 Jul. 1911, in force 15 Dec. 1911, available at: http://docs.lib.noaa.gov.

⁵⁰ Convention for Settlement of Difficulties Arising from Operation of Smelter at Trail, Ottawa (Canada), 15 Apr. 1935, in force 3 Aug. 1935, available at: http://untreaty.un.org.

⁵¹ See, e.g., Mitchell, International Environmental Agreements Database Project, n. 1 above.

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⁶⁵ UNGA Resolution A/RES/37/7, 28 Oct. 1982, available at: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm.

⁶⁶ Adopted by the UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), 3–14 June 1992, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (Vol. I), 14 Jun. 1992, available at: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm.

⁶⁷ Bodansky, n. 58 above.

⁶⁸ French, D., ‘Multilateral Environmental Agreements: Legal Status of the Secretariats by Bharat H. Desai’ (2011) 23(1) Journal of Environmental Law, pp. 155–7Google Scholar, at 155. See also Sands & Peel, n. 7 above, at p. 42.

⁶⁹ Sands & Peel, ibid.

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⁷³ Ibid., at p. 584.

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⁷⁷ New York, NY (US), 9 May 1992, in force 21 Mar. 1994, available at: http://unfccc.int.

⁷⁸ UNFCCC, ibid., Art. 8(2)(e).

⁷⁹ UNFCCC, ibid., Art. 7(2)(1).

⁸⁰ See, e.g., Memorandum of Understanding between the Secretariat and the Bureau of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar), UN Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/3/Inf.38, 15 Oct. 1996, available at: http://www.cbd.int/doc/agreements/agmt-ramsar-1996-01-19-moc-web-en.pdf.

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⁸⁷ Van Asselt, n. 7 above, at p. 1265.

⁸⁸ Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), 5 Jun. 1992, in force 29 Dec. 1993, available at: http://www.cbd.int.

⁸⁹ Views on the Paper on Options for Enhanced Cooperation among the Three Rio Conventions Submissions from Parties, UN Doc. FCCC/SBSTA/2006/MISC.4, 23 Mar. 2006, at p. 16.

⁹⁰ Report on the work of the United Nations Open-Ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea at its Eleventh Meeting, UN Doc. A/65/164, 23 Jul. 2010, at para. 90. See also Diz, D. et al. et al., ‘Summary of the Resumed Review Conference of the UN Fish Stocks Agreement: 24–28 May 2010’ (2010) 7(65) Earth Negotiations Bulletin, pp. 1–14, at 7.Google Scholar

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⁹² Scott, n. 7 above, at p. 214.

⁹³ Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Summary, UN Doc. UNEP/IGM/1/INF/1, 30 Mar. 2001, at para. 42.

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¹⁰² UNCLOS, ibid., Art. 195.

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¹⁰⁴ European Environment Agency, ‘Opinion of the EEA Scientific Committee on Greenhouse Gas Accounting in Relation to Bioenergy’, 15 Sep. 2011, at pp. 5–6, available at: http://www.eea.europa.eu.

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¹¹⁰ ‘“Forest” is a minimum area of land of 0.05–1.0 hectares with tree crown cover (or equivalent stocking level) of more than 10–30 per cent with trees with the potential to reach a minimum height of 2–5 metres at maturity in situ. A forest may consist either of closed forest formations where trees of various storeys and undergrowth cover a high proportion of the ground or open forest. Young natural stands and all plantations which have yet to reach a crown density of 10–30 per cent or tree height of 2–5 metres are included under forest, as are areas normally forming part of the forest area which are temporarily unstocked as a result of human intervention such as harvesting or natural causes but which are expected to revert to forest’: Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Seventh Session, held at Marrakesh from 29 October to 10 November 2001, Addendum, Part Two: Action Taken by the Conference of the Parties, Vol. I, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2001/13/Add.1, 21 Jan. 2002, at p. 58.

¹¹¹ Decision 2/CP.7, The Marrakesh Accords, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2001/13/Add.1, 21 Jan. 2002.

¹¹² Sasaki, N. & Putz, F.E., ‘Critical Need for New Definitions of “Forest” and “Forest Degradation” in Global Climate Change Agreements’ (2009) 2(5) Conservation Letters, pp. 226–32Google Scholar; Glomsrød, S., Wei, T., Liu, G. & Aune, J.B., ‘How Well Do Tree Plantations Comply with the Twin Targets of the Clean Development Mechanism? – The Case of Tree Plantations in Tanzania’ (2011) 70(6) Ecological Economics, pp. 1066–74.Google Scholar

¹¹³ Agrawal, A., Nepstad, D. & Chhatre, A., ‘Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation’ (2011) 36(1) Annual Review of Environment and Resources, pp. 373–96Google Scholar; Putz, F.E. & Redford, K., ‘Dangers of Carbon-based Conservation’ (2009) 19(4) Global Environmental Change, pp. 400–1Google Scholar; Strassburg, B.B.N. et al. et al., ‘Global Congruence of Carbon Storage and Biodiversity in Terrestrial Ecosystems’ (2010) 3(2) Conservation Letters, pp. 98–105.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Williamson, P. et al. et al., ‘Ocean Fertilization for Geoengineering: A Review of Effectiveness, Environmental Impacts and Emerging Governance’ (2012) 90(6) Process Safety and Environmental Protection, pp. 475–88Google Scholar; Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Scientific Synthesis of the Impacts of Ocean Fertilization on Marine Biodiversity (SCBD, 2009). See also Metz, B. et al. et al. (eds), Climate Change 2007: Working Group III: Mitigation of Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2007), at pp. 624–5.Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Decision IX/16, Biodiversity and Climate Change, UN Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/IX/16, 9 Oct. 2008, at p. 7. See also Decision X/33, Biodiversity and Climate Change, UN Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/33, 29 Oct. 2010, at p. 5.

¹¹⁶ For general discussions on the legal dimension of ocean fertilization, see, e.g., Freestone, D. & Rayfuse, R., ‘Ocean Iron Fertilization and International Law’ (2008) 364 Marine Ecology Progress Series, pp. 227–33Google Scholar; Abate, R.S. & Greenlee, A.B., ‘Sowing Seeds Uncertain: Ocean Iron Fertilization, Climate Change, and the International Environmental Law Framework’ (2010) 27(2) Pace Environmental Law Review, pp. 555–98Google Scholar; Bertram, C., ‘Ocean Iron Fertilization in the Context of the Kyoto Protocol and the Post-Kyoto Process’ (2010) 38(2) Energy Policy, pp. 1130–9Google Scholar; VanderZwaag, D.L., ‘Ocean Dumping and Fertilization in the Antarctic: Tangled Legal Currents, Sea of Challenges’, in Berkman, P.A., Lang, M.A., Walton, D.W.H. & Young, O.R. (eds), Science Diplomacy: Antarctica, Science, and the Governance of International Spaces (Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2011), pp. 245–52Google Scholar; Warner, R., ‘Marine Snow Storms: Assessing the Environmental Risks of Ocean Fertilization’ (2009) 3(4) Carbon and Climate Law Review, pp. 426–36.Google Scholar

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¹¹⁸ Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, 1972, London (United Kingdom), 7 Nov. 1996, in force 24 Mar. 2006, available at: http://www.imo.org.

¹¹⁹ See, e.g., Zeebe, R.E., Zachos, J.C., Caldeira, K. & Tyrrell, T., ‘Carbon Emissions and Acidification’, (2008) 321(5885) Science, pp. 51–2.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ Caldeira, K. & Wickett, M.E., ‘Anthropogenic Carbon and Ocean pH’ (2003) 425(6956) Nature, pp. 365–8Google Scholar. The increasing acidity is predicted to have dire consequences for many marine ecosystems and species, especially those organisms that form shells and plates out of calcium carbonate, such as coral reefs: Riebesell, U. et al. et al., ‘Reduced Calcification of Marine Plankton in Response to Increased Atmospheric CO₂’ (2000) 407(6802) Nature, pp. 364–7Google Scholar; Orr, J.C. et al. et al., ‘Anthropogenic Ocean Acidification over the Twenty-first Century and Its Impact on Calcifying Organisms’ (2005) 437(7059) Nature, pp. 681–6Google Scholar; Hoegh-Guldberg, O. et al. et al., ‘Coral Reefs Under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification’ (2007) 318(5857) Science, pp. 1737–42Google Scholar; Fabry, V.J., Seibel, B.A., Feely, R.A. & Orr, J.C., ‘Impacts of Ocean Acidification on Marine Fauna and Ecosystem Processes’ (2008) 65(3) ICES Journal of Marine Science, pp. 414–32.Google Scholar

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¹²³ Baird, Simons & Stephens, ibid.

¹²⁴ UNFCCC, n. 77 above, Art. 4(1)(d); Kyoto Protocol, n. 121 above, Art. 2(1)(a)(ii).

¹²⁵ Ocean iron fertilization could, in theory, reduce the rate of increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and hence the rate of ocean acidification in the upper ocean. However, if deployed on a climatically significant scale, this approach would relocate acidification from the upper ocean to mid- or deep water, where biota may be more sensitive to pH changes: Cao, L. & Caldeira, K., ‘Can Ocean Iron Fertilization Mitigate Ocean Acidification?’ (2010) 99(1–2) Climatic Change, pp. 303–11Google Scholar; Caldeira, K. & Duffy, P.B., ‘The Role of the Southern Ocean in Uptake and Storage of Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide’ (2000) 287(5453) Science, pp. 620–2Google Scholar; Williamson, P. & Turley, C., ‘Ocean Acidification in a Geoengineering Context’ (2012) 370(1974) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, pp. 4317–42.Google Scholar

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¹²⁷ Jóhannsdóttir, Cresswell & Bridgewater, n. 12 above.

¹²⁸ Proelss, A. & Krivickaite, M., ‘Marine Biodiversity and Climate Change’ (2009) 3(4) Carbon and Climate Law Review, pp. 437–45, at 438.Google Scholar

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¹³¹ Meadows, D.H., Thinking in Systems: A Primer (Chelsea Green, 2008), at p. 137.Google Scholar

¹³² Ibid.

¹³³ See, e.g., Folke, C. et al. et al., ‘Reconnecting to the Biosphere’ (2011) 40(7) Ambio, pp. 719–38.Google Scholar

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¹³⁵ Meadows, n. 131 above, at pp. 161–2.

¹³⁶ Schelling, T.C., Micromotives and Macrobehavior (Norton, 1978).Google Scholar

¹³⁷ Meadows, n. 131 above, at p. 162; S.A. Levin, ‘Complex Adaptive Systems: Exploring the Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable’ (2002) 40(1) Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, pp. 3–19.

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¹³⁹ Unger, R., Law in Modern Society (Free Press, 1976), at p. 194.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁰ Steiner, Kimball & Scanlon, n. 21 above.

¹⁴¹ Report of the Study Group of the International Law Commission (ILC), Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties Arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law, UN Doc. A/CN.4/L.682, 13 Apr. 2006.

¹⁴² Vienna (Austria), 23 May 1969, in force 27 Jan. 1980, available at: http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments.

¹⁴³ VCLT, ibid., Art. 31(3)(c).

¹⁴⁴ We note that the formulation of Article 31(3)(c) has been criticized as unclear both in its substantive and temporal scope and its normative force. See, e.g., Linderfalk, U., ‘Who Are “The Parties”? Article 31, Paragraph 3(c) of the 1969 Vienna Convention and the “Principle of Systemic Integration” Revisited’ (2008) 55(3) Netherlands International Law Review, pp. 343–64Google Scholar; McLachlan, C., ‘The Principle of Systemic Integration and Article 31(3)(c) of the Vienna Convention’ (2005) 54(2) International and Comparative Law Quarterly, pp. 279–319Google Scholar; Tzevelekos, V.P., ‘The Use of Article 31(3)(c) of the VCLT in the Case Law of the ECtHR: An Effective Anti-Fragmentation Tool or a Selective Loophole for the Reinforcement of Human Rights Teleology?’ (2010) 31 Michigan Journal of International Law, pp. 621–90.Google Scholar

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¹⁴⁶ Kauffman, S., At Home in the Universe: The Search for Laws of Self-Organization and Complexity (Oxford University Press, 1995)Google Scholar. For a general introduction to complex adaptive systems, see, e.g., Holland, J.H., Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds Complexity (Perseus Books Group, 1995)Google Scholar; Levin, S.A., Fragile Dominion: Complexity and the Commons (Perseus Books Group, 1999)Google Scholar; Miller, J.H. & Page, S.E., Complex Adaptive Systems: An Introduction to Computational Models of Social Life (Princeton University Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Mitchell, M., Complexity: A Guided Tour (Oxford University Press, 2009).Google Scholar

¹⁴⁷ Kauffman, ibid, at p. 267.

¹⁴⁸ Steiner, Kimball & Scanlon, n. 21 above.

¹⁴⁹ Possibilities include fundamental ethical change promoted through a global treaty or the Earth Charter (see, e.g., Taylor, n. 74 above, at pp. 323–44), jurisprudential advancements through academic literature or judicial reasoning, or incremental changes through legal agreements or institutional reform. See Bugge & Voigt, n. 33 above.

¹⁵⁰ Latham, G.P. & Locke, E.A., ‘Self-Regulation through Goal Setting’ (1991) 50 Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, pp. 212–47.Google Scholar

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¹⁵² GLWQA, ibid., Art. II.

¹⁵³ Canberra (Australia), 20 May 1980, in force 7 Apr. 1982, available at: http://www.ccamlr.org.

¹⁵⁴ Ibid., Preamble.

¹⁵⁵ See, e.g., Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean, Barcelona (Spain), 10 Jun. 1995, in force 12 Dec. 1999, available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu.

¹⁵⁶ N. 65 above.

¹⁵⁷ N. 66 above.

¹⁵⁸ Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development, UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26, 14 Jun. 1992, available at: http://www.unep.org.

¹⁵⁹ IUCN Environmental Law Programme, Draft International Covenant on Environment and Development. Fourth edition: Updated Text (IUCN Environmental Law Programme & International Council of Environmental Law, 2010), available at: http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/environmental_law/elp_resources/elp_res_publications/?uPubsID=4197.

¹⁶⁰ The Earth Charter Initiative, The Earth Charter (The Earth Charter Initiative, 2000), available at: http://www.earthcharterinaction.org.

¹⁶¹ Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, UN Doc. A/CONF.199/20, 4 Sep. 2002, available at: http://www.johannesburgsummit.org.

¹⁶² N. 30 above.

¹⁶³ Rio Declaration, n. 66 above, Preamble.

¹⁶⁴ Rio Declaration, ibid., Principle 7.

¹⁶⁵ World Charter for Nature, n. 65 above, Principle 4.

¹⁶⁶ Earth Charter, n. 160 above, Principle 5.

¹⁶⁷ Draft International Covenant, n. 159 above, Art. 2. This was reflected in the text upon consulting with the drafters of the Earth Charter to ensure consistency among the principles set forth in both texts.

¹⁶⁸ Bosselmann, n. 32 above, at pp. 162–74.

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¹⁷¹ Rockström et al., n. 3 above.

¹⁷² Griggs et al., n. 170 above.

¹⁷³ Griggs et al., ibid. See also Anton, D.K., ‘The 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development and the Future of International Environmental Protection’ (2012) 7(1) Consilience: The Journal of Sustainable Development, pp. 55–61.Google Scholar

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¹⁷⁶ Decision X/2, The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, UN Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/2, 29 Oct. 2010.

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