Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-qsmjn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T06:34:05.379Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Secret Society Goes Public: The Relationship Between Abakuá and Cuban Popular Culture

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 May 2014

Ivor Miller
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

The Abakuá Society for men is derived from the West African Ékpè Societies of the Cross River region. It was founded in Havana, Cuba, in 1836 to resist slavery, and has since been active in many aspects of Cuban culture. Although hermetic and little known even within Cuba, an analysis of Cuban popular music recorded from the 1920s until the present reveals Abakuá influence in nearly every genre of Cuban popular music. Abakuá lore is orally transmitted, and Cuban musicians who are Abakuá members have continually documented key aspects of their society's history in commercial recordings, often in Abakuá language. Because theirs is a secret language for initiates only, Abakuá have commercially recorded actual chants of the society, knowing that outsiders cannot interpret them. Even so, these recordings have been very popular because the Abakuá represent a rebellious, even anticolonial, aspect of Cuban culture. Now played throughout the Americas, Africa, Europe, and Asia, Cuban popular music and its derivatives maintain Abakuá language and aesthetics as integral elements. Because so little has been written about the society by members themselves, commercial recordings with Abakuá content are an important source of knowledge about this group. While listening to the lyrics, I realized that Abakuá musicians have sung about their contributions to Cuban history, their liberation struggles, and race relations. My research suggests the rising importance of Abakuá as a symbol of Cuban culture.

Résumé:

Résumé:

La Société des hommes Abakuá tire son origine des Sociétés Ékpè ouest africaines de la région de Cross River. Elle fut fondée à Havane à Cuba en 1836 pour résister à l'esclavage et est depuis active dans bien des aspects de la culture cubaine. Bien qu'elle reste hermétique et peu connue même à l'intérieur de Cuba, une analyse de la musique populaire cubaine enregistrée depuis les années 1920 jusqu'à nos jours révèle l'influence Abakuá dans presque tous les genres de musique populaire cubaine. La tradition Abakuá est transmise oralement, et les musiciens cubains membres d'Abakuá ont continuellement documenté des aspects essentiels de l'histoire de leur société dans des enregistrements commerciaux, souvent en langue Abakuá. Comme leur langue est une langue secrète réservée exclusivement aux initiés, les Abakuá ont enregistré dans le commerce de véritables chants de cette société, tout en sachant que les profanes ne pourraient pas les interpréter. Pourtant, ces enregistrements furent extrêmement populaires car les Abakuá représentent un aspect rebelle, voire anticolonialiste de la culture cubaine. Aujourd'hui jouée partout dans les Amériques, en Afrique, en Europe et en Asie, la musique populaire cubaine et ses dérivés maintiennent la langue et l'esthétique Abakuá comme parties intégrantes. Parce que si peu a été écrit sur cette société par ses membres eux-mêmes, les enregistrements commerciaux comprenant un contenu Abakuá sont une source importante de connaissances sur ce groupe. En écoutant leurs paroles, nous nous sommes rendus compte que les musiciens Abakuá ont chanté leurs contributions à l'histoire cubaine, leurs luttes pour la libération et les relations entre les races. Nos recherches suggèrent l'importance grandissante d'Abakuá en tant que symbole de la culture cubaine.

Type
Special Issue on the Diaspora
Information
African Studies Review , Volume 43 , Issue 1: Africa's Diaspora: A Special Issue , April 2000 , pp. 161 - 188
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abím̄bọ́lá, Wán̄dé. 1998. Personal communication. Cambridge, Mass., 12 12.Google Scholar
Afigbo, Adiele. 1981. Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.Google Scholar
Afro-Cuban All Stars. 1997. “Los Sitio' Asere.” A toda Cuba le gusta. Nonesuch 79476-2.Google Scholar
Amram, David. 1978. “En memoria de Chano Pozo.” David Amram: Havana/New York: The Historic U.S.–Cuban Musical Exchange of 1977. Flying Fish FF-057.Google Scholar
Arends, Jacques, Muysken, Pieter, and Smith, Norval, eds. 1994. Pidgins and Creoles: An Introduction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Bascom, William R. 1980. Sixteen Cowries: Yoruba Divination from Africa to the New World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Bellson, Louie. 1977. “Ecué.” Composed by Israel López, “Cachao.” Ecué: ritmos cubanos. California.Google Scholar
Benítez-Rojo, Antonio. 1992. The Repeating Island: The Caribbean and the Postmodern Perspective. Translated by Maraniss, James E.. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Benítez-Rojo, Antonio. 1998.“Música y nación: el rol de la música negra y mulata en la constructión de la nación cubana Moderna.” Encuentro de la cultura cubana (Madrid) 8–9: 43–54.Google Scholar
Rev.Bentley, W. Holman. 1887. Dictionary and Grammar of the Kongo Language, as spoken at San Salvador, the Ancient Capital of the Old Kongo Empire, West Africa. London: Trübner & Co.Google Scholar
Cabrera, Lydia. 1936. Contes Negrès de Cuba. Paris. (Published in Madrid in 1972 as Cuentos negreo de Cuba.)Google Scholar
Cabrera, Lydia. 1984. Vocabulario congo (El bantú que se habla en Cuba). Miami: Colección del Chicherekú en el exilio.Google Scholar
Cabrera, Lydia. 1988. La lengua sagrada de los Ñáñigos. Miami: Colección del Chicherekú en el exilio.Google Scholar
Caignet, Félix B. 1993. “Carabalí.” Recorded by Ronda Lirica Oriental in 1928. Hot Music From Cuba, 1907–1936. HQ CD 23.Google Scholar
Campbell, Horace. 1987. Rasta and Resistance: From Marcus Garvey to Walter Rodney. Trenton, N. J.: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
Carpentier, Alejo. [1933] 1979. ¡Ecue-Yamba-0! Madrid.Google Scholar
Carpentier, Alejo. [1946] 1980. La música en Cuba. 2d ed. Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Economica.Google Scholar
Caturla, Alejandro García, and Carpentier, Alejo. 1980. “Poemas afrocubanos,” “Elegia del enkiko.” In Música vocal. Havana: Editora Musical de Cuba.Google Scholar
Conjunto Céspedes. 1995. “Ibiano.” Composed by Revé, Elio. Vivito y coleando. Xeno 4033.Google Scholar
Conjunto Folklorico Nacional de Cuba. 1964. “Enkame.” Havana, Areito. LDA 3156.Google Scholar
Crabb, David W. 1965. Ekoid Bantu Languages of Ogoja, Eastern Nigeria. Part 1: Introduction, Phonology and Comparative Vocabulary. West African Language Monographs 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Delgado, Issac, and Alvarez, Adalberto. 1994. El chévere de la salsa — El caballero del son. CD 35749–2. BMG Music.Google Scholar
Deschamps Chapeaux, Pedro. 1964. “Margarito Blanco ‘Osongo de Ultán.’” Boletin del Instituto de Historia y del Archivo Nacional 65: 97–109.Google Scholar
Deschamps Chapeaux, Pedro. El negro en la economia habanera del siglo 19. Havana: UNEAC.Google Scholar
Díaz Ayala, Cristóbal. 1994. Cuba canta y baila: Discografia de la música cubana. Primer volumen: 1898–1925. San Juan: Fundación Musicalia.Google Scholar
Díaz Ayala, Cristóbal. 1999a. Letter to the author. 06 6.Google Scholar
Díaz Ayala, Cristóbal. 1999b. Letter to the author. 07 8.Google Scholar
Díaz Ayala, Cristóbal. 1999c. Letter to the author. 08 9.Google Scholar
Dizzy Gillespie: Complete RCA Victor Recordings. 1995. RCA CD 66528-2.Google Scholar
Dizzy Gillespie y Arturo Sandoval en vivo. 1985. “Swing Love.” Festival Latino Plaza. EGREM LD 4271.Google Scholar
Dizzy Gillespie/Max Roach in Paris. “Afro-Cuban Suite.” BMG Music. CD 09026-68213–2.Google Scholar
“El Ñáñigo.” 1982. The Cuban Danzon: Its Ancestors and Descendants. Ethnic Folkways Records FE 4066.Google Scholar
Embale, Carlos. 1988. “Blen, blen, blen.” Written by Chano Pozo, 1940. Todavia me queda voz. EGREM.Google Scholar
Embale, Carlos. 1995. “En el tiempo de la colonia.” Written by Recio, Mario. Que bonito canta. CD 0102 EGREM.Google Scholar
Febles, Juan “Juanillo.” 1996. Audio recorded conversations in Havana, 12.Google Scholar
Faraclas, Nicholas G. 1989. “Cross River.” In Bendo-Samuel, John, ed. The Niger–Congo Languages. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 377–99.Google Scholar
Forde, Daryll, ed. 1956. Efik Traders of Old Calabar. London: International African Institute.Google Scholar
Gates, Henry L. 1988. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Guillén, Nicolás. [1930] 1974. “Motivos de Son.” In Nicolás Guillén: Obra poética, 1920–1958. 2d ed. Havana: UNEAC.Google Scholar
Güines, Tata. 1996. “Homenaje a Chano Pozo.” Aniversario. EGREM, CD 0156, Havana.Google Scholar
Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo. 1992. Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.Google Scholar
Harrev, Fleming. 1992. “Francophone West Africa and the Jali Experience.” In West African Pop Roots, ed. Collins, John. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 209–43.Google Scholar
Hechavarria, Emilio. 1998. Conversation with author, barrio Cayo Hueso, Havana, 05.Google Scholar
Henderson, R. 1972. The King in Every Man: Evolutionary Trends in Onitsha Ibo Society. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Hernández, Florencio “Carusito,” and Galano, Juana Loisa. 1998. Conversation with author, Havana, 03 11.Google Scholar
Herrera, Lázaro. 1999. Audio recorded conversations, Havana, 02, March, April, May.Google Scholar
Kazadi, Pierre. 1971. “Congo Music: Africa's Favorite Beat. A Kinshasa/Brazzaville Style Built on an Afro-American Synthesis.” Africa Report 16, no. 4 (04): 25–27.Google Scholar
King, Chester. 1999. Conversation with author, Cambridge, Mass., 05.Google Scholar
Lapique, Becali Zoila. 1979. Música colonial cubana en las publicaciones periódicas (1812–1902). Vol. 1. Havana: Editorial Letras Cubanas.Google Scholar
Lecuona Cuban Boys. 1992. Vol. 3, 1934–42. “Chevere.” Recorded in Paris, 1937. Harlequin HQ CD 21.Google Scholar
Lecuona Cuban Boys. 1993. “Folie Negre.” Written by Simons, Moisé. Recorded in Paris, 1936. Ernesto Lecuona and the Lecuona Cuban Boys, 1932–1936. Vol. 4. HQ CD 26.Google Scholar
Lemvo, Ricardo, and Loca, Makino. 1998. “Mambo Yo Yo.” Afro-Latino. Putumayo World Music, PUTU 139–2 CD.Google Scholar
León, Argeliers. 1991. “Of the Axis and the Hinge: Nationalism, Afro-Cubanism, and Music in Pre-Revolutionary Cuba.” In Essays on Cuban Music: North American and Cuban Perspectives, ed. Manuel, Peter. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 267–82.Google Scholar
Linares, Dra. María Teresa. 1996, 1998. Conversations with author, 05, March.Google Scholar
L'Lastra, Horacio. 1996. Conversation with author, Guanabacoa, Havana, 08.Google Scholar
Machito and His Orchestra, Featuring Mario Bauza. 1993. “U-Bla-Ba-Du.” Written by Pepe Becke. Recorded 1948 or 1949, New York City. The Original Mambo Kings: An Introduction to Afro-Cubop. Verve CD 314 513 876–2.Google Scholar
Manfredi, Victor. 1991. “ and : Ìgbo Linguistic Consciousness, Its Origins and Limits.” Ph.D diss., Harvard University.Google Scholar
Martínez-Alier, Verena. 1989. Marriage, Class and Colour in 19th Century Cuba: A Study of Racial Attitudes and Sexual Values in a Slave Society. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Matibag, Eugenio. 1996. Afro-Cuban Religious Experience: Cultural Reflections in Narrative. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.Google Scholar
Meek, C. K. 1937. Law and Authority in a Nigerian Tribe: A Study in Indirect Rule. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Celeste. 1997. “Saoco.” Written by Rosendo Ruiz. Recording date unknown. Cuba: I am Time. Blue Jackel CD 5012–2.Google Scholar
Miller, Ivor. 1995. “Belief and Power in Contemporary Cuba.” Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University.Google Scholar
Miller, Ivor. Histories of the Abakuá Society: Narrated by Andrés Flores Casanova. Forthcoming.Google Scholar
Morales, Obdulio. 1937. “Enyoró.” Recorded by the Augusto Coen orquesta. Decca Records.Google Scholar
Moré, Beny. 1950. “Bábarabatíri.” Written by Antar Daly.Google Scholar
Moré, Beny. 1982a. “En el tiempo de la colonia.” Written by Mario Recio. Recorded in August 1954. Sonero mayor. Vol. 4. EGREM, LD-3708.Google Scholar
Moré, Beny. 1982b. “Batanga No. 2.” Written by Jústiz Barreto before 1959. Sonero mayor. Vol. 8. EGREM, LD-4061.Google Scholar
Moré, Beny. 1994. “Pongan Atención.” Written by Horacio L'Lastra. The Very Best of Beny Moré and His All Star Afro-Cuban Big Bands. Vol. 2. Recorded October 2, 1957, Havana. Tropical/Classic CD-P.Google Scholar
Moore, Robin D. 1997. Nationalizing Blackness: Afrocubanismo and Artistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
O'Neil, Jack. 1999. Letter to the author. 07 6.Google Scholar
Oropesa, Frank, and Blanco, Pablo M.. 1997. “Pon atención al Abakuá” (son-Abakuá). Septeto Nacional Ignacio Piñeiro: Piñeiro se baila con son. Sonpat Sari. Recorded in Cuba, CD SP 0005.Google Scholar
Orovio, Helio. 1992. Diccionario de la música cubana. 2d ed. Havana: Editorial Letras Cubanas.Google Scholar
Ortiz, Fernando. 1952. Los instrumentos de la música afrocubana. Vol. 2. Havana: Ministerio de Educatión.Google Scholar
Ortiz, Fernando. 1954. Los instrumentos de la música afrocubana. Vol. 4. Havana: Cárdenas y Cía.Google Scholar
Ortiz, Fernando. 1955. Los instrumentos de la música afrocubana. Vol. 5. Havana: Cárdenas y Cía.Google Scholar
Ortiz, Fernando. 1960. La antigua fiesta afrocubana del Día de Reyes. Havana: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores.Google Scholar
Ortiz, Fernando. 1981. Los bailes y el teatro de los negros en el folklore de Cuba. 2d ed. Havana: Letras Cubanas.Google Scholar
Ortiz, Fernando. [1913] 1987. “Las supervivencias africanas en Cuba.” In Entre cubanos: psicología tropical. 2d ed. La Habana: Editorial de ciencias sociales.Google Scholar
Paquette, Robert L. 1988. Sugar Is Made with Blood: The Conspiracy of La Escalera and the Conflict between Empires over Slavery in Cuba. Middletown, Conn: Wesleyan University Press.Google Scholar
Pascual Pons, Carmen. 1997. Acercamiento a las sociedades secretas Abakuá en Guanabacoa. Havana: Archivo del Museo de Guanabacoa.Google Scholar
Piñeiro, Ignacio. c1925–1928. “Iyamba bero” (clave ñáñiga). Performed by Cruz, Bienvenido y Villalón. 78 rpm. Columbia records #2421-X (93950).Google Scholar
Piñeiro, Ignacio. 1995. “Guaguanco Callejero.” Sung by “Goyo” Hernández. Rapsodia Rumbera. Recorded in Havana, 1995. EGREM CD 0121.Google Scholar
Prado, Perez. [1954] 1995. “Voodoo Suite (Afro Cuban Jazz Suite).” Prez: the Mambo King. Vol. 2. BMG 74321–31955–2.Google Scholar
Reyes, Jorge. 1999. Tributo a Chano Pozo. Recorded and mixed in Havana. BIS Music. CD-162.Google Scholar
Salazar, Max. 1993. “Chano Pozo: Part 1.” Latin Beat 3.3 (04): 6–7.Google Scholar
Sanabria, Bobby. [1999] 2000. Afro-Cuban Dream: Live and In Clave. Bobby Sanabria Big Band. Arabesque CD AJ0149.Google Scholar
Serviá, Estanislao. n.d. “Chevere Macumchevere.” El Danzón. Orquesta Antonio Ma. Romeu, EGREM LD 3037.Google Scholar
Habanero, Sexteto. [1928] 1995a. “Criolla Carabali.” Written by Guillermo. Castillo. Sexteto Habanero 1926–1931, Harlequin HQC D 53.Google Scholar
Habanero, Sexteto. [1928] 1995b. “Dónde estás corazón.” Written by Martínez Serrano. Sexte to Habanero 1926–1931, Harlequin HQ CD 53.Google Scholar
Sexteto Nacional de Ignacio Piñeiro. [1928] 1993. “Mujeres enamorenme.” Written by Bienvenido León. Hot Music From Cuba 1907–1936. HQ CD 23.Google Scholar
Sosa-Rodríguez, Enrique. 1982. Los Ñañigos. Havana: Ediciones Casa de las Américas.Google Scholar
Spottswood, Richard K. 1990. Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced in the United States, 1893 to 1942. Vol. 4. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Stapleton, Chris, and May, Chris. 1990. African Rock: The Pop Music of a Continent. New York: Dutton.Google Scholar
Stuckey, Sterling. 1987. Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Talbot, P. Amaury. 1912. In the Shadow of the Bush. London: William Heinemann.Google Scholar
Thomas, Hugh. 1997. The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Thompson, Robert Farris. 1984. Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American Art and Philosophy. New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Trujillo y Monagas, D. José. 1882. Los criminates de Cuba y D. José Truijillo: narración de los servicios prestados en el cuerpo de policía de La Habana. Barcelona: Establecimiento Tipográfico de Fidel Giro.Google Scholar
Urfé, Odilio. 1977. “La música y la danza en Cuba.” In África en América Latina, ed. Manuel Moreno Fraginals. Paris: Unesco.Google Scholar
Urfé, Odilio. 1992. Liner notes to Arcaño y sus maravillas, EGREM CD 0034.Google Scholar
Urua, Ẹnọ. 1997. “Object Movement in Eastern Lower-Cross.” In Object Positions in Benue-Kwa, ed. Déchaine, Rose-Marie and Manfredi, Victor. The Hague: Holland Academic Graphics, 189–206.Google Scholar
Valdés, Miguelito. [1949] 1994. “Chano Pozo.” (Mambo). Written by Bolado, Vidal. Miguelito Valdés and His Super Orchestra: Mambo Dance Session. CC1050CD.Google Scholar
Van Van Los, . 1999. “Appapas del Calabar.” Llegó…Van Van. Havana caliente–Atlantic. 832227–2.Google Scholar
Vera, María Teresa. [1956] 1994. “En la alta sociedad.” Veinte Años. CD 0056 EGREM.Google Scholar
Vera, María Teresa. [1923] 1998. “Los cantares del Abacua.” Written by Piñeiro, Ignacio. Maria Teresa Vera y Rafael Zequeira: El legendario dúo de la trova cubana. Grabaciones históricas 1916–1924. Tumbao TCD 090.Google Scholar
Warner-Lewis, Maureen. 1996. Trinidad Yoruba: From Mother Tongue to Memory. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar
Waters, Anita M. 1985. Race, Class, and Political Symbols: Rastafari and Reggae in Jamaican Politics. New Brunswick, N. J.: Transaction Books.Google Scholar
Wifredo Lam and His Contemporaries, 1938–1952. 1992. New York: Studio Museum in Harlem.Google Scholar
Williamson, Kay, and Shimizu, Kiyoshi, eds. 1968. Benue-Congo Comparative Word List. Ìbàdàn, Nigeria: University of Ìbàdàn.Google Scholar
Williamson, Kay, and Timitimi, A. O.. 1983. Short Ịzọn-English Dictionary. Port Harcourt, Nigeria: University of Port Harcourt Press.Google Scholar
Wonder, Stevie. 1972. “Don't You Worry ‘Bout a Thing.” Innervisions. Motown Records.Google Scholar
Yoruba, Andabo. 1993. “Enyenison enkama (Africa habla).” Yoruba Andabo: El callejón de los rumberos. Havana: PM Records.Google Scholar
Yoruba, Andabo. 1997. Del Yoruba al Son. La isla de la música. Vol. 6. Universal CD FMD 75141.Google Scholar