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² Thomas Carlyle to John A. Carlyle, 12 March 1828, in The Collected Letters of Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle, ed. Campbell, Ian, Christianson, Aileen, and Sorensen, David R., 42 vols. (Durham, 1970–), 4:339–44Google Scholar (hereafter CL); Thomas Carlyle, notebook entry dated March 1832, in Two Note Books of Thomas Carlyle, ed. Norton, Charles Eliot (New York, 1898), 256–57Google Scholar.

³ Thomas Carlyle to Ralph Waldo Emerson, 3 February 1835, CL, 8:36–43.

⁴ For Carlyle's early reading of Cicero, see Thomas Carlyle to Robert Mitchell, 25 March 1815, CL, 1:41–45; Thomas Carlyle to James Johnston, 26 June 1818, CL, 1:130–35; Thomas Carlyle to Robert Mitchell, 14 July 1819, CL, 1:188–92; and Two Reminiscences of Thomas Carlyle, ed. Clubbe, John (Durham, 1974), 32–33 Google Scholar. Carlyle received a copy of Lucretius's De rerum natura as a gift in 1822. See Catalogue of Printed Books, Autograph Letters, Literary Manuscripts … Formerly the Property of Thomas Carlyle (London, 1932), 14 Google Scholar.

⁵ Robert Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy (1621), cited in Barbour, Reid, English Epicures and Stoics: Ancient Legacies in Early Stuart Culture (Amherst 1998), 70 Google Scholar. Carlyle read the work in January 1827. Carlyle, Two Note Books, 98–99. For the Temple-Swift controversy, see Steensma, Robert C., “Swift and Epicurus,” Bulletin of the Rocky Mountain Modern Languages Association 17, no. 1 (May 1964): 10–12 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In December 1826, Carlyle reported having read “Sir William Temple's works.” Carlyle, Two Note Books, 84. For Carlyle's references to A Tale of a Tub, see Thomas Carlyle to John A. Carlyle, March 1821, CL, 1:332–33; Thomas Carlyle to John A. Carlyle, 30 January 1822, CL, 2:23–26; and Thomas Carlyle to John A. Carlyle, 11 November 1823, CL, 2:465–69.

⁶ Rosen, Frederick, Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill (London, 2003), 167–72Google Scholar.

⁷ Wilson, David Alec, Carlyle till Marriage (1795–1826) (London, 1923), 110 Google Scholar. The only attempt to develop this insight, Holmberg's, Olle David Hume in Carlyle's “Sartor Resartus” (Lund, 1934)Google Scholar, does not extend beyond Sartor (1833–1834), is extremely dated, and does not deal with Epicureanism.

⁸ Doubtless due to the heavy shadow cast by Froude, James Anthony, Thomas Carlyle: A History of the First Forty Years of His Life, 1795–1835, 2 vols. (New York, 1882)Google Scholar, in which Froude pronounced, “Of classical literature [Carlyle] knew little … He was not living in ancient Greece or Rome, but in modern Europe” (1:104). Cf. Flint, Thomas, “Carlyle as Classicist,” Classical Weekly 13, no. 7 (December 1919): 51–54 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ To cite only the book-length studies: Fleischmann, Wolfgang Bernard, Lucretius and English Literature 1680–1740 (Paris, 1964)Google Scholar; Jones, Howard, The Epicurean Tradition (London, 1989)Google Scholar; Osler, Margaret J., ed., Atoms, Pneuma, and Tranquility: Epicurean and Stoic Themes in European Thought (Cambridge, 1991)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bonacina, Giovanni, Filosofia ellenistica e cultura moderna: Epicureismo, stoicismo e scetticismo da Bayle a Hegel (Florence, 1996)Google Scholar; Force, Pierre, Self-Interest Before Adam Smith (Cambridge, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wilson, Catherine, Epicureanism at the Origins of Modernity (Oxford, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Leddy, Neven and Lifschitz, Avi, eds., Epicurus in the Enlightenment (Oxford, 2009)Google Scholar. There is no discussion of Epicureanism in Jenkyns, Richard, The Victorians and Ancient Greece (Oxford, 1980)Google Scholar; Turner, Frank M., The Greek Heritage in Victorian Britain (New Haven, 1981)Google Scholar; or Vance, Norman, The Victorians and Ancient Rome (Oxford, 1997)Google Scholar. The exceptions are Vaughn, Frederick, The Tradition of Political Hedonism From Hobbes to J. S. Mill (New York, 1982), chaps. 7Google Scholar; Scarre, Geoffrey, “Epicurus as a Forerunner of Utilitarianism,” Utilitas 6, no. 2 (November 1994): 219–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism, chaps. 7, 10–11, all of which focus on Bentham and J. S. Mill.

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¹² “Thomas Carlyle,” North British Review 4 (February 1846): 505–36, at 506Google Scholar.

¹³ Jones, Epicurean Tradition, 55–58, 50, citation in Vaughn, Tradition of Political Hedonism, 34–37.

¹⁴ See Strauss, Leo, Natural Right and History (Chicago, 1953), 109–11Google Scholar; Jones, Epicurean Tradition, 62–78; and Long, A. A., “Pleasure and Utility: The Virtues of Being Epicurean,” in From Epicurus to Epictetus: Studies in Hellenistic and Roman Philosophy (Oxford, 2006), 178–201 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ See generally Vaughn, Tradition of Political Hedonism; and Jones, Epicurean Tradition.

¹⁶ See Thomas Carlyle to John Fergusson, 25 September 1819, CL, 1:196–99; Thomas Carlyle to John A. Carlyle, 10 August 1824, CL, 3:120–24; and Catalogue of Printed Books, 14.

¹⁷ John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690); Burnet, Remarks upon An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1697), cited in Vaughn, Tradition of Political Hedonism, 83–84, 98, 144–45.

¹⁸ On Shaftesbury's anti-Epicureanism, see Klein, Lawrence E., Shaftesbury and the Culture of Politeness: Moral Discourse and Cultured Politics in Early Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1994), 51–69 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Rivers, Isabel, Reason, Grace, and Sentiment: A Study of the Language of Ethics in England, 1660–1780 (Cambridge, 2000), 2:85–152CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In December 1826, Carlyle noted, “I have read Shaftesbury's Characteristics.” Carlyle, Two Note Books, 71–72.

¹⁹ Ashley-Cooper, Anthony, Earl of Shaftesbury, Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times, 6th ed., 3 vols. (London, 1737)Google Scholar, 2:232, 1:97, 1:116.

²⁰ See Hundert, E. G., The Enlightenment's Fable: Bernard Mandeville and the Discovery of Society (Cambridge, 1994), 45–51 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²³ See generally Hirschman, Albert O., The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism before Its Triumph (Princeton, 1977)Google Scholar; Hamowy, Ronald, The Scottish Enlightenment and the Theory of Spontaneous Order (Carbondale, 1987), 3, 6, 10–13 Google Scholar; and Sebastiani, Silvia, “Beyond Ancient Virtues: Civil Society and Passions in the Scottish Enlightenment,” History of Political Thought 32, no. 5 (January 2011): 821–40Google Scholar.

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²⁸ Hume, Treatise, 2:300, 2:106.

²⁹ For further discussion, see Pendelbaum, Terence, “Hume's Moral Psychology,” in The Cambridge Companion to Hume, ed. Norton, David Fate (Cambridge, 1993), 117–47Google Scholar.

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³² Hume, Treatise, 2:250, 207. See also ibid., 320–21.

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⁴⁸ Ibid., 53–54.

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⁵⁶ Thomas Carlyle to John A. Carlyle, 12 March 1828, CL, 4:339–44.

⁵⁷ Fontana, Rethinking the Politics, 93.

⁵⁸ Carlyle, “Wotton Reinfred,” 53–54.

⁵⁹ Jeremy Bentham, A Fragment on Government (1776), cited in Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism, 49.

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⁶⁵ Jeremy Bentham, Codification Proposal (1822), cited in Schofield, Utility and Democracy, 34–35.

⁶⁶ Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, cited in Schofield, Utility and Democracy, 33–34, and in Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism, 50–51.

⁶⁷ Jeremy Bentham, Deontology (1826), cited in Schofield, Utility and Democracy, 48–49.

⁶⁸ See Schofield, Utility and Democracy, 141–55.

⁶⁹ Jeremy Bentham, Constitutional Code (1830), cited in Schofield, Utility and Democracy, 263–64.

⁷⁰ See Rosen, Frederick, “The Origin of Liberal Utilitarianism,” in Victorian Liberalism: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought and Practice, ed. Bellamy, Richard (London, 1990), 58–70, at 61, 63–66 Google Scholar.

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⁷² Mackintosh, James, A General View of the Progress of Ethical Philosophy, Chiefly During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Philadelphia, 1832), 31 Google Scholar. Carlyle met “Macintosh” in October 1831, judging him “a whig Philosopher and Politician … our best of that sort.” Carlyle, Two Note Books, 202–3.

⁷³ On Carlyle and the Saint-Simonians, see generally Pankhurst, R. K. P., The Saint-Simonians, Mill and Carlyle (London, 1957)Google Scholar; Shine, Hill, Carlyle and the Saint-Simonians: The Concept of Historical Periodicity (Baltimore, 1941)Google Scholar; and Fielding, K. J., “Carlyle and the Saint-Simonians (1830–1832): New Considerations,” in Carlyle and His Contemporaries, ed. Clubbe, John (Durham, 1976), 35–59 Google Scholar. On the Saint-Simonians's reading of Bentham, see Spühler, Willy, Der Saint-Simonismus: Lehre und Leben von Saint-Amand Bazard (Zurich, 1926), 57–60, 123–29Google Scholar; Bellet, Michel, “Saint-simonisme et utilitarisme: Saint-Simon lecteur de Bentham,” in Bentham et la France: fortune et infortunes de l'utilitarisme, ed. de Champs, Emmanuelle and Cléro, Jean-Pierre (Oxford, 2009), 177–96Google Scholar; and de Champs, Emmanuelle, Enlightenment and Utility: Bentham in French, Bentham in France (Cambridge, 2015), 169–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁷⁵ Carlyle, “Wotton Reinfred,” 71.

⁷⁶ Carlyle, “Schiller” (March 1831), CME, 3:65–110, at 87–90.

⁷⁷ Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism, 167–72.

⁷⁸ Thomas Carlyle to Ralph Waldo Emerson, 3 February 1835, CL, 8:36–43.

⁷⁹ See Schneewind, Sidgwick's Ethics, 64–73, 75; Haakonssen, Knud, Natural Law and Moral Philosophy: From Grotius to the Scottish Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1996), 185–205 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harris, James A., Of Liberty and Necessity: The Free Will Debate in Eighteenth-Century British Philosophy (Oxford, 2005), 183–84, 195, 219–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and idem, “Reid and Hume on the Possibility of Character,” in Character, Self, and Sociability in the Scottish Enlightenment, ed. Ahnert, Thomas and Manning, Susan (New York, 2011), 31–47 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 32–33, 41–42.

⁸⁰ On Carlyle's debts to Reid and Stewart, see Schneewind, Sidgwick's Ethics, 168; and Jessop, Carlyle and Scottish Thought.

⁸¹ Carlyle, “Signs of the Times” (June 1829), CME, 2:230–52, at 236–40. See also ibid., 249–50.

⁸² Carlyle, Thomas, Lectures on the History of Literature (April–July 1838), ed. Greene, J. Reay (London, 1892), 204 Google Scholar. See also ibid., 214.

⁸³ Carlyle, Thomas, On Heroes, Hero Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841) (London, 1904), 75–76 Google Scholar. See also Carlyle, Thomas, Sartor Resartus (1833–1834) (Oxford, 1987), 167 Google Scholar.

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⁸⁵ Carlyle, Lectures, 52, 173–75.

⁸⁶ Carlyle, Thomas, Past and Present (1843) (London, 1912), 261, 274–75, 147–48, 150Google Scholar (hereafter PP).

⁸⁷ Carlyle, Thomas, Latter-Day Pamphlets (1850) (London, 1897), 281–82Google Scholar (hereafter LDP).

⁸⁸ Carlyle, Lectures, 214.

⁸⁹ Carlyle, “Signs of the Times,” CME, 2:245.

⁹⁰ Carlyle, “Schiller” (March 1831), CME, 3:87–90. See also Carlyle, “Wotton Reinfred,” 23–24; Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, 124–25; Carlyle, Lectures, 203.

⁹¹ Thomas Carlyle to Geraldine Jewsbury, 26 April 1840, CL, 12:118; and Thomas Carlyle to Geraldine Jewsbury, 15 June 1840, CL, 12:163–66.

⁹² Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, 126; Carlyle, On Heroes, 75–76; Carlyle, PP, 106.

⁹³ Carlyle, On Heroes, 57.

⁹⁴ Carlyle, PP, 219, 265.

⁹⁵ Many writers had begun to voice skepticism regarding “public opinion.” See Gunn, Beyond Liberty and Property, 298–99; Wahrman, Imagining the Middle Class, 305; and Wahrman, “Public Opinion,” 99, 104–5.

⁹⁷ Ibid., 177–78.

⁹⁶ Carlyle, “Voltaire” (April 1829), CME, 2:176.

⁹⁸ Mackinnon, W. A., On the Rise, Progress, and Present State of Public Opinion, in Great Britain, and Other Parts of the World (London, 1828), 218–19, 19Google Scholar. On the Edinburgh Review’s substitution of “public opinion” for ancient virtue, see Plasart, Scottish Enlightenment, 173–75.

⁹⁹ Carlyle, “Signs of the Times” (June 1829), CME, 2:240, 249.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., 239, 246.

¹⁰¹ Entry dated 11 October 1831, Carlyle, Two Note Books, 205.

¹⁰² Hume, “Of the Independency of Parliaments,” 30.

¹⁰³ James Mill, Fragment on Mackintosh (1830), cited in Collini, Winch, and Burrow, That Noble Science, 113. See also Fenn, Robert A., James Mill's Political Thought (New York, 1987), 118–27Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ Mill had recently blocked Carlyle's appointment to the new London University. Thomas Carlyle to Anna D. B. Montagu, 17 August 1828, CL, 4:388–92.

¹⁰⁵ Carlyle, “Characteristics” (December 1831), CME, 4:36–37.

¹⁰⁶ Carlyle, On Heroes, 229.

¹⁰⁷ Carlyle, PP, 25.

¹⁰⁸ Carlyle, Lectures, 182.

¹⁰⁹ Ibid.

¹¹⁰ See Vivenza, Gloria, Adam Smith and the Classics: The Classical Heritage in Adam Smith's Thought (Oxford, 2001), 54–56, 79–80, 81CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism, chap. 6; Neven Leddy, “Adam Smith's Critique of Enlightenment Epicureanism,” in Epicurus in the Enlightenment, ed. Leddy and Lifschitz, 195–201; Hont, Istvan, Jealousy of Trade: International Competition and the Nation-State in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, MA, 2010), 38–40, 50–51 Google Scholar; and idem, Politics in Commercial Society: Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith (Cambridge, MA, 2015), 29–32 Google Scholar.

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¹¹⁵ Hancock, W. Neilson, On Laissez-faire and the Economic Resources of Ireland (Dublin, 1848), 10 Google Scholar. See also ibid., 3–4, 17. On Carlyle's relationship with Hancock, see Jordan, “Thomas Carlyle and Political Economy.”

¹¹⁶ Carlyle, PP, 161. See also Carlyle, “Chartism” (December 1839), CME, 6:109–86, at 139, 144, 152–53.

¹¹⁷ Carlyle, PP, 178.

¹¹⁸ Carlyle, LDP, 241.

¹¹⁹ Ibid., 266–67.

¹²⁰ Carlyle, PP, 32–33. See also ibid., 179.

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¹²³ Ibid., 27–29.

¹²⁴ Carlyle, LDP, 54.

¹²⁵ Ibid., 212–13.

¹²⁶ Carlyle, “Chartism,” CME, 6:135, 144.

¹²⁷ Carlyle, On Heroes, 199–200.

¹²⁸ Carlyle, PP, 160–61. See also ibid., 204–6.

¹²⁹ Carlyle, LDP, 98.

¹³⁰ Garnett, Richard, Life of Thomas Carlyle (London, 1895), 100 Google Scholar.

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¹³³ Carlyle, “Boswell's Life of Johnson” (May 1832), CME, 4:77, 89–90. The references to “Hume” are on 105, 119, 128, 129, and 130.

¹³⁴ Carlyle, “Sir Walter Scott” (January 1838), CME, 6:40, 22–23.

¹³⁵ Carlyle, On Heroes, 12, 15. As an example of a “hero,” Carlyle cited Cromwell, disagreeing with the “Hume theory” that he had been a “Fanatic-Hypocrite.” Ibid., 229.

¹³⁶ Davis, James A., John Forster: A Literary Life (Leicester, 1983), 11–12, 105–7, 184–96, 295Google Scholar.

¹³⁷ [Forster, John], “Socrates and the Sophists of Athens,” Foreign and Quarterly Review 60 (January 1843): 181–202, at 187Google Scholar.

¹³⁸ [Forster, John], “The Dialogues of Plato,” Foreign and Quarterly Review 62 (July 1843): 260–76, at 276, 273Google Scholar.

¹³⁹ “Latter-Day Pamphlets: By Thomas Carlyle,” English Review 16 (January 1852): 331–51, at 335–36Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁰ Ibid., 340. On Carlyle's Stoicism, see Alexander Jordan, “Noble Just Industrialism: Saint-Simonism in the Political Thought of Thomas Carlyle” (PhD diss., European University Institute, 2015), chap. 1.

¹⁴¹ “Carlyle's Life of Sterling,” North British Review 16 (February 1852): 359–89, at 388–89Google Scholar.

¹⁴² [Martineau, James], “Personal Influences on our Present Theology: Newman – Coleridge – Carlyle,” National Review 3 (1856): 449–94, at 484Google Scholar. On Martineau's opposition to utilitarianism, see Schneewind, Sidgwick's Ethics, 237–43.

¹⁴³ See Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism, chap. 10.

¹⁴⁴ Diary entries dated 20 January 1854 and 8 April 1854, in The Letters of John Stuart Mill, ed. Elliot, H. S. R., 2 vols. (London, 1910), 2:361, 385Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁵ See generally Neff, Emery, Carlyle and Mill: An Introduction to Victorian Thought, 2nd ed. (New York, 1926), 373–77Google Scholar; and Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism, chap. 10.

¹⁴⁶ Mill, John Stuart, “Utilitarianism” (1863), in On Liberty and Other Essays (Oxford, 1991), 143–44Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁷ Ibid., 147.

¹⁴⁸ Ibid., 148.

¹⁴⁹ Carlyle, Thomas, “A New (Old) Review of Mill's Liberty ,” Carlyle Newsletter 6 (1985): 23–27, at 24–25Google Scholar. See also Carlyle, “Shooting Niagara” (1867), CME, 7:200–41, at 223–24.

¹⁵⁰ Graham, William, Idealism: An Essay, Metaphysical and Critical (London, 1872), 79 Google Scholar. Carlyle owned a copy. Tarr, “Thomas Carlyle's Libraries,” 255. He later provided Graham with a testimonial. William Graham to Thomas Carlyle, 20 January 1876, MS 1772/38, National Library of Scotland.

¹⁵¹ Lecky, W. E. H., History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne, 2 vols. (London, 1869), 1:3CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also ibid., 14, 180–86. On Lecky's “very long walks with Carlyle” and Carlyle's approval of the book, see A Memoir of the Right Hon. William Edward Hartpole Lecky … By His Wife (New York, 1909), 63, 67–68 Google Scholar.

¹⁵² Lecky, History, 1:1, 3, 5–6, 13, 102.

¹⁵³ Cited in ibid., 1:58. The quote is from Carlyle, On Heroes, 71.

¹⁵⁴ See Forschner, Maximilian, “Die Synthese epikureischer und stoischer Elemente in John Stuart Mills Utilitarianism,” in Stoizismus in der europaeischen Philosophie, Literatur, Kunst und Politik, ed. Neymeyr, Barbara, Schmidt, Jochen, and Zimmermann, Bernhard, 2 vols. (Berlin, 2008), 2:1105–40, at 1107, 1113–14, 1119–20, 1132–33Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁵ Froude, Thomas Carlyle, 2:422.

¹⁵⁶ Grote, John, An Examination of the Utilitarian Philosophy, ed. Mayor, J. B. (Cambridge, 1870), 15–16, 24, 46–47, 52–53 Google Scholar. See also ibid., 60, 62–63, 76, 98–100, 105. Grote writes “eudaimonia” and “pleasure” in ancient Greek.

¹⁵⁷ Wallace, Stuart, John Stuart Blackie: Scottish Scholar and Patriot (Edinburgh, 2006), 7, 84–85, 164, 220Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁸ Blackie, John Stuart, Four Phases of Morals: Socrates, Aristotle, Christianity, Utilitarianism (Edinburgh, 1871), 407 Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁹ Ibid., 332, 401–3, 405–6. See also 374, 382, 400.

¹⁶⁰ Caird, Edward, “The Genius of Carlyle,” in Essays on Literature and Philosophy, (Glasgow, 1892), 2:230–67, at 266Google Scholar.

¹⁶¹ The Life of Thomas Cooper. Written by Himself (London, 1875), 347–49Google Scholar.

¹⁶² Catalogue of Printed Books, 40.