Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-c47g7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T21:47:55.674Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Surviving Elections: Election Violence, Incumbent Victory and Post-Election Repercussions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 December 2016

Emilie M. Hafner-Burton ,
Susan D. Hyde  and
Ryan S. Jablonski
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

It is often assumed that government-sponsored election violence increases the probability that incumbent leaders remain in power. Using cross-national data, this article shows that election violence increases the probability of incumbent victory, but can generate risky post-election dynamics. These differences in the consequences of election violence reflect changes in the strategic setting over the course of the election cycle. In the pre-election period, anti-incumbent collective action tends to be focused on the election itself, either through voter mobilization or opposition-organized election boycotts. In the post-election period, by contrast, when a favorable electoral outcome is no longer a possibility, anti-government collective action more often takes the form of mass political protest, which in turn can lead to costly repercussions for incumbent leaders.

Keywords

Electoral violenceelection protestselection boycotts
Type
Articles
Information
British Journal of Political Science , Volume 48 , Issue 2 , April 2018 , pp. 459 - 488
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

School of Global Policy and Strategy, University of California, San Diego (email: ehafner@ucsd.edu); Department of Political Science, University of California, Berkeley (email: susanhyde@berkeley.edu); Department of Government, London School of Economics and Political Science (email: r.s.jablonski@lse.ac.uk). Replication data is available at https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataverse/BJPolS and online appendices are available at http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1017/S000712341600020X.

References

AAP Reuter . 1977. Detention Sparks Pakistan Battles. AAP-Reuter, 18 May, p. 7.Google Scholar
Adams, Brad. 2012. 10,000 Days of Hun Sen. The International Herald Tribune, 1 June, p. 6.Google Scholar
Agence France Presse. 2006. ‘Belarus Leader to ‘Break Neck’ of Election Demonstration’. Minsk: Agence France Presse.Google Scholar
Arriola, Leonardo, and Johnson, Chelsea. 2011. Election Violence in Democratizing States. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Seattle, WA, 1–4 September.Google Scholar
Bahari, Maziar, and Alinejad, Masih. 2010. Mehdi Karrubi: ‘We Are Ready to Pay Any Price’; The Former Presidential Candidate on Reforming Iran. Newsweek, 14 June, p. 38.Google Scholar
Banks, Arthur S. 1975. Cross-National Time-Series Data Archive: User’s Manual. Binghamton, NY: Center for Comparative Political Research, State University of New York.Google Scholar
Banks, Arthur S. 2005. Cross-National Time-Series Data Archive. Binghamton: Databanks International.Google Scholar
Barnes, Kenneth C. 1998. Who Killed John Clayton?: Political Violence and the Emergence of the New South, 1861–1893 . Durham, NC: Duke University Press Books.Google Scholar
Beaulieu, Emily. 2006. Protesting the Contest: Election Boycotts Around the World, 1990–2002. PhD Dissertation. San Diego: University of California.Google Scholar
Beaulieu, Emily. 2014. Electoral Protest and Democratization in the Developing World. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beech, Keyes. 1960. Foes Charge Rhee Charts Vote Theft: Korean Police Break Up Student Protest Parade. The Washington Post, 9 March, p. A4.Google Scholar
Bekoe, Dorina, ed. 2013. Voting in Fear: Electoral Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace Press.Google Scholar
Bensel, Richard Franklin. 2004. The American Ballot Box in the Mid-Nineteenth Century. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhasin, Tavishi, and Gandhi, Jennifer. 2013. Timing and Targeting of State Repression in Authoritarian Elections. Electoral Studies 32 (4):620–631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binder, David. 1991. Albanian Troops Kill 3 Protesters and Wound 30. The New York Times, 2 April, p. 3.Google Scholar
Birch, Sarah. 2011. Electoral Malpractice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blaydes, Lisa. 2011. Elections and Distributive Politics in Mubarak’s Egypt. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Boone, Catherine. 2011. Politically Allocated Land Rights and the Geography of Electoral Violence. The Case of Kenya in the 1990s. Comparative Political Studies 44 (10):1311–1342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brancati, Dawn, and Snyder, Jack L.. 2011. Rushing to the Polls: The Causes of Premature Post-Conflict Elections. Journal of Conflict Resolution 55:469–492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brancati, Dawn, and Snyder, Jack L.. 2012. Time to Kill: The Impact of Election Timing on Post-Conflict Stability. Journal of Conflict Resolution 57:822–853.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bratton, Michael. 2008. Vote Buying and Violence in Nigerian Election Campaigns. Electoral Studies 27 (4):621–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brownlee, Jason. 2009. Portents of Pluralism: How Hybrid Regimes Affect Democratic Transitions. American Journal of Political Science 53 (3):515–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunce, Valerie J., and Wolchik, Sharon L.. 2010. Defeating Dictators: Electoral Change and Stability in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes. World Politics 62 (1):43–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunce, Valerie J., and Wolchik, Sharon L.. 2011. Defeating Authoritarian Leaders in Postcommunist Countries. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, Sabine C. 2006. The Dynamic Relationship Between Protest and Repression. Political Research Quarterly 59 (1):1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan. 2007. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chenoweth, Erica, and Stephan, Maria J.. 2011. Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Cingranelli, David L., and Richards, David L.. 2010. The Cingranelli-Richards (CIRI) Human Rights Dataset. Available from http://www.humanrightsdata.org, accessed 23 July 2015.Google Scholar
Collier, Paul. 2009. Wars, Guns, and Votes. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Collier, Paul, and Vicente, Pedro C.. 2012. Violence, Bribery, and Fraud: The Political Economy of Elections in Sub-Saharan Africa. Public Choice 153:117–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daxecker, Ursula E. 2012. The Cost of Exposing Cheating International Election Monitoring, Fraud, and Post-Election Violence in Africa. Journal of Peace Research 49 (4):503–516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daxecker, Ursula E. 2014. All Quiet on Election Day? International Election Observation and Incentives for Pre-Election Violence in African Elections. Electoral Studies 34:232–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunning, Thad. 2011. Fighting and Voting: Violent Conflict and Electoral Politics. Journal of Conflict Resolution 55 (3):327–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fearon, James D. 2011. Self-Enforcing Democracy. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 126 (4):1661–1708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flores, Thomas E., and Nooruddin, Irfan. 2012. The Effect of Elections on Post-Conflict Peace and Reconstruction. Journal of Politics 74 (2):558–570.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, Richard W. 2014. The Strategic Use of Election Violence. Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Toronto, 28 March.Google Scholar
Gandhi, Jennifer. 2010. Political Institutions Under Dictatorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gandhi, Jennifer, and Przeworski, Adam. 2009. Holding Onto Power By Any Means? The Origins of Competitive Elections. Unpublished Manuscript. Atlanta, GA: Emory University. Available at http://cowles.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/conf/2009/rat_przeworski.pdf, accessed 14 December 2009.Google Scholar
Gandhi, Jennifer, and Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2009. Elections Under Authoritarianism. Annual Review of Political Science 12:403–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerber, Alan S., Huber, Gregory A., Doherty, David, and Dowling, Conor M.. 2013. Is There a Secret Ballot? Ballot Secrecy Perceptions and Their Implications for Voting Behaviour. British Journal of Political Science 43 (1):77–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goemans, Hein E., Gleditsch, Kristian S., and Chiozza, Giacomo. 2009. Introducing Archigos: A Dataset of Political Leaders. Journal of Peace Research 46 (2):269–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, Kenneth F. 2007. Why Dominant Parties Lose: Mexico’s Democratization in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, Kenneth F. 2008. Dominant Party Strategy and Democratization. American Journal of Political Science 52 (1):16–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The Guardian . 2008. Belarus Elections Labelled Corrupt as Lukashenko Backers Win all Seats, 29 September. Available from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/sep/29/belarus, accessed 6 August 2013.Google Scholar
Gupta, Dipak K., Singh, Harinder, and Sprague, Tom. 1993. Government Coercion of Dissidents. Journal of Conflict Resolution 37 (2):301–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hafner-Burton, Emilie M., Hyde, Susan D., and Jablonski, Ryan S.. 2014. When Do Governments Resort to Election Violence? British Journal of Political Science 44 (1):149–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hermet, Guy, Rouquie, Alain, and Rose, Richard, eds. 1978. Elections Without Choice. London: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Höglund, Kristine. 2009. Electoral Violence in Conflict-Ridden Societies: Concepts, Causes, and Consequences. Terrorism and Political Violence 21 (3):412–427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Höglund, Kristine, Jarstad, Anna K., and Kovacs, Mimmi Söderberg. 2009. The Predicament of Elections in War-Torn Societies. Democratization 16 (3):530–557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoppen, K. Theodore. 1984. Elections, Politics, and Society in Ireland, 1832–1885. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Howard, Marc M., and Roessler, Philip G.. 2006. Liberalizing Electoral Outcomes in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes. American Journal of Political Science 50 (2):365–381.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2003. Don’t Bite the Hand that Feeds You: Coercion, Threats, and Vote-Buying in Cambodia’s National Elections. Available from http://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/asia/cambodia/elections.htm, accessed 6 August 2013.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2008. Ballots to Bullets: Organized Political Violence and Kenya’s Crisis of Governance. Available from http://www.hrw.org/reports/2008/03/16/ballots-bullets-0, accessed 8 January 2015.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2010. Ethiopia: Government Repression Undermines Poll: International Election Observers Should Condemn Voter Intimidation. Available from http://www.hrw.org/news/2010/05/24/ethiopia-government-repression-undermines-poll, accessed 6 January 2012.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1991. The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Hyde, Susan D., and O’Mahony, Angela. 2010. International Scrutiny and Pre-Electoral Fiscal Manipulation in Developing Countries. Journal of Politics 72 (2):690–704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyde, Susan D., and Marinov, Nikolay. 2011. Codebook for National Elections Across Democracy and Autocracy (NELDA), available at http://hyde.research.yale.edu/nelda/NELDA_Codebook_version3.pdf, accessed 30 May 2012.Google Scholar
Hyde, Susan D., and Marinov, Nikolay. 2012. Which Elections Can Be Lost? Political Analysis 20 (2):191–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyde, Susan D., and Marinov, Nikolay. 2014. Information and Self-Enforcing Democracy: The Role of International Election Observation. International Organization 68 (2):329–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, Keele, Luke, Tingley, Dustin, and Yamamoto, Teppei. 2011. Unpacking the Black Box of Causality: Learning About Causal Mechanisms from Experimental and Observational Studies. American Political Science Review 105 (4):765–789.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The Island – Sri Lanka. 2015. Poll Monitoring Body in Sri Lanka Says Army Presence May Lower Turnout in North. BBC Monitoring South Asia – Political Supplied by BBC Worldwide Monitoring, 7 January. Available from http://www.lexisnexis.com/lnacui2api/api/version1/getDocCui?lni=5F15-J7W1-DYRV-32B8&csi=237924&hl=t&hv=t&hnsd=f&hns=t&hgn=t&oc=00240&perma=true, accessed 3 August 2015.Google Scholar
Kelley, Judith G. 2012. Monitoring Democracy: When International Election Observation Works, and Why It Often Fails. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kuhn, Patrick M. 2010. Fraud, Coordination Problems, and Successful Post-Electoral Protests in Competitive Electoral Autocracies. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 23 April.Google Scholar
Kuhn, Patrick. 2013. Ethnic Voting, Partisanship, and Pre-Electoral Violence: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa. Presented at the Pre-APSA Workshop on Electoral Integrity, Chicago, IL, 28 August.Google Scholar
Kuran, Timur. 1995. Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
LeBas, Adrienne. 2006. Polarization as Craft: Party Formation and State Violence in Zimbabwe. Comparative Politics 38 (4):419–438.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehoucq, Fabrice. 2003. Electoral Fraud: Causes, Types, and Consequences. Annual Review of Political Science 6:233–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan. 2002. The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy 13 (2):51–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: The Origins and Evolution of Hybrid Regimes in the Post-Cold War Era. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindberg, Staffan I. 2006a. Democracy and Elections in Africa. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindberg, Staffan I. 2006b. Tragic Protest: Why Do Opposition Parties Boycott Elections? In Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition, edited by Andreas Schedler, 149–163. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, Andrew T. 2012. Elections, Fraud, and Election Monitoring in the Shadow of Revolution. Quarterly Journal of Political Science 7 (3):249–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, Andrew T., Tucker, Joshua A., and LaGatta, Tom. 2015. Elections, Protest, and Alternation of Power. Journal of Politics 77 (4):1142–1156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, Walter, and Posada-Carbo, Eduardo, eds. 1996. Political Corruption in Europe and Latin America. New York: Palgrave.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lohmann, Susanne. 1994. The Dynamics of Informational Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany, 1989–91. World Politics 47 (1):42–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Los Angeles Times . 1960a. Rhee Steps Down: Foreign Minister to Head Caretaker Regime in Korea. Los Angeles Times (1923-Current File), 27 April. Available from http://search.proquest.com/docview/167690452/abstract/13BD93180B549904B10/2?accountid=15172, accessed 6 August 2013.Google Scholar
Los Angeles Times . 1960b. South Korea Torn by New Rioting: Violence Flares in 7 Cities. Los Angeles Times (1923-Current File), 20 April. Available from http://search.proquest.com/docview/167674850/abstract/13FBF06884D19322FC0/1?accountid=15172, accessed 7 August 2013.Google Scholar
Lust, Ellen. 2009. Competitive Clientelism in the Middle East. Journal of Democracy 20 (3):122–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2004. Divided They Rule: The Management and Manipulation of Political Opposition. Comparative Politics 36 (2):159–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2006. Elections Under Authoritarianism: Preliminary Lessons from Jordan. Democratization 13 (3):456–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magaloni, Beatriz. 2006. Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and Its Demise in Mexico. Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magaloni, Beatriz. 2010. The Game of Electoral Fraud and the Ousting of Authoritarian Rule. American Journal of Political Science 54 (3):751–765.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Makumbe, John. 2002. Zimbabwe’s Hijacked Election. Journal of Democracy 13 (4):87–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malone, Barry. 2010. Ethiopian PM Says EU Election Report is Trash. Reuters. Available from http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/11/15/ozatp-ethiopia-election-idAFJOE6AE0LQ20101115, accessed 25 January 2013.Google Scholar
Malone, Barry, and Clarke, David. 2010. Ethiopia’s Meles Expects Win, EU Says High Turnout. Reuters UK, Sec. World, 23 May. Available from http://uk.reuters.com/article/2010/05/23/uk-ethiopia-election-idUKTRE64L2FB20100523, accessed 3 August 2015.Google Scholar
Marshall, Monty G. 2007. Major Episodes of Political Violence, 1946–2006. Center for Systemic Peace. Available from http://www.systemicpeace.org/warlist.htm, accessed 17 August 2009.Google Scholar
Marshall, Monty G., and Jaggers, Keith. 2008. Polity IV Project: Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2008. Dataset Users’ Manual. College Park: Center for International Development and Conflict Management, University of Maryland.Google Scholar
McCargo, Duncan. 2005. Cambodia: Getting Away with Authoritarianism? Journal of Democracy 16 (4):98–112.Google Scholar
McCoy, Jennifer, and Hartlyn, Jonathan. 2009. The Relative Powerlessness of Elections in Latin America. In Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition, edited by Staffan I. Lindberg, 47–76. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Moore, Will H. 1998. Repression and Dissent: Substitution, Context, and Timing. American Journal of Political Science 42 (3):851–873.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morse, Yonatan L. 2012. The Era of Electoral Authoritarianism. World Politics 64 (1):161–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Republic Institute for International Affairs. 1991. The 1991 Elections in Albania: Report of the Election Observer Delegation. Washington, DC: National Republic Institute for International Affairs. Available from http://www.iri.org/sites/default/files/Albania%27s%201991%20Parliamentary%20Elections.pdf, accessed 25 January 2013.Google Scholar
Nichter, Simeon. 2008. Vote Buying or Turnout Buying? Machine Politics and the Secret Ballot. American Political Science Review 102 (1):19–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nohlen, Dieter, ed. 2005. Elections in the Americas: A Data Handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nohlen, Dieter, Grotz, Florian, and Hartmann, Christof, eds. 2001. Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nohlen, Dieter, Krennerich, Michael, and Thibaut, Bernhard, eds. 1999. Elections in Africa: A Data Handbook. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norris, Pippa. 2012. Why Electoral Malpractices Heighten Risks of Electoral Violence. SSRN Scholarly Paper, Social Science Research Network, Rochester, NY. Available from http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2104551, accessed 27 January 2013.Google Scholar
Organization of American States. 1978. El Salvador 1978 – Chapter IX. OAS. Available from http://www.cidh.org/countryrep/ElSalvador78eng/chap.9.htm, accessed 16 January 2013.Google Scholar
Pevehouse, Jon C., Straus, Scott, and Taylor, Charles. 2012. Perils of Pluralism: Electoral Violence and Competitive Authoritarianism in Sub-Saharan Africa. Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, New Orleans, LA, 1 September.Google Scholar
Poe, Steven C., and Tate, C. Neal. 1994. Repression of Human Rights to Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis. The American Political Science Review 88 (4):853–872.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poe, Steven C., Tate, C. Neal, and Keith, Linda Camp. 1999. Repression of the Human Right to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Cross-National Study Covering the Years 1976–1993. International Studies Quarterly 43 (2):291–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posada-Carbó, Eduardo. 2000. Electoral Juggling: A Comparative History of the Corruption of Suffrage in Latin America, 1830–1930. Journal of Latin American Studies 32 (3):611–644.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ritter, Emily Hencken. 2014. Policy Disputes, Political Survival, and the Onset and Severity of State Repression. Journal of Conflict Resolution 58 (1):143–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, James A., and Torvik, Ragnar. 2009. The Real Swing Voter’s Curse. American Economic Review 99 (2):310–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roessler, Philip G., and Howard, Marc M.. 2009. Post-Cold War Political Regimes: When Do Elections Matter? In Democratization by Elections, edited by Staffan I. Lindberg, 101–127. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Schedler, Andreas. 2002a. The Menu of Manipulation. Journal of Democracy 13 (2):36–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schedler, Andreas. 2002b. The Nested Game of Democratization by Elections. International Political Science Review 23 (1):103–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schedler, Andreas, ed. 2006. Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schedler, Andreas. 2009. The Contingent Power of Authoritarian Elections. In Democratization by Elections: A New Mode of Transition, edited by Staffan Lindberg, 291–313. Baltimore, MD and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Schock, Kurt. 1999. People Power and Political Opportunities: Social Movement Mobilization and Outcomes in the Philippines and Burma. Social Problems 46 (3):355–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simpser, Alberto. 2012. Why Parties and Governments Manipulate Elections: Theory, Practice, and Implications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Ian O. 2014. Election Boycotts and Hybrid Regime Survival. Comparative Political Studies 47 (5):743–765.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephan, Maria J., and Chenoweth, Erica. 2008. Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict. International Security 33 (1):7–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokes, Susan C. 2005. Perverse Accountability: A Formal Model of Machine Politics with Evidence from Argentina. American Political Science Review 99 (3):315–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, Scott, and Taylor, Charlie. 2012. Democratization and Electoral Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1990–2008. In Voting in Fear: Electoral Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa, edited by Dorina A. Bekoe, 15–38. Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace Press.Google Scholar
Svolik, Milan W., and Chernykh, Svitlana. 2012. Third-Party Actors and the Success of Democracy: How Electoral Commissions, Courts, and Observers Shape Incentives for Election Manipulation and Post-Election Protest. Available from http://publish.illinois.edu/msvolik/files/2012/12/thirdparties.pdf, accessed 12 July 2013.Google Scholar
Teshome-Bahiru, Wondwosen. 2009. Electoral Violence in Africa: Experience from Ethiopia. SSRN eLibrary. Available from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1595585, accessed 6 November 2012.Google Scholar
Thompson, Mark R. 1995. The Anti-Marcos Struggle: Personalistic Rule and Democratic Transition in the Philippines. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Throup, David, and Hornsby, Charles. 1998. Multi-Party Politics in Kenya: The Kenyatta & Moi States & The Triumph of the System in the 1992 Election. Melton: J. Currey.Google Scholar
Tripp, Aili Mari. 2010. Museveni’s Uganda: Paradoxes of Power in a Hybrid Regime. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trumbull, Robert. 1960. Police Open Fire: Some Students Hurt – Lee Told to Give Up Vice-Presidency. New York Times, 26 April, p. 1.Google Scholar
Tucker, Joshua. 2007. Enough! Electoral Fraud, Collective Action Problems, and Post-Communist Colored Revolutions. Perspectives on Politics 5 (3):535–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United States Congress House Committee on International Relations, Subcommittee on International Relations. 1977. The Recent Presidential Elections in El Salvador, Implications for US Foreign Policy Hearings Before the Subcommittee on International Organizations and on Inter-American Affairs of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, Ninety-fifth Congress, First Session, March 9 and 17, 1977. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. Available from http://www.lexisnexis.com/congcomp/getdoc?HEARING-ID=HRG-1977-HIR-0055, accessed 16 January 2013.Google Scholar
von Borzyskowski, Inken. 2013. Sore Losers? International Condemnation and Domestic Incentives for Post-Election Violence. Available from http://www.polisci.wisc.edu/Uploads/Documents/IRC/Borzyskowski_Election%20Violence.pdf, accessed 19 November 2014.Google Scholar
Weingast, Barry R. 1997. The Political Foundations of Democracy and the Rule of Law. The American Political Science Review 91 (2):245–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkinson, Steven I. 2006. Votes and Violence. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Williams, Carol J. 1991. Albania Erupts in Violence; 3 Killed, 58 Hurt. Los Angeles Times. Available from http://articles.latimes.com/1991-04-03/news/mn-1645_1_democratic-party, accessed 4 December 2012.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2013. World Development Indicators. Available from http://wdi.worldbank.org, accessed 15 January 2013.Google Scholar
Zeldin, Theodore. 1958. The Political System of Napoleon III. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: Link

Hafner-Burton et al. Dataset

Dataset

https://dx.doi.org/10.7910/DVN/N5LOQN
Link
Supplementary material: File

Hafner-Burton supplementary material

Appendix

Download Hafner-Burton supplementary material(File)
File 417.8 KB