Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-cfpbc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-19T14:52:27.732Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Search for Annual 14C Excursions in the Past

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 September 2016

Fusa Miyake ,
Kimiaki Masuda ,
Toshio Nakamura ,
Katsuhiko Kimura ,
Masataka Hakozaki ,
A J Timothy Jull ,
Todd E Lange ,
Richard Cruz ,
Irina P Panyushkina  and
Chris Baisan
...Show all authors
Fusa Miyake*
Affiliation:
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Kimiaki Masuda
Affiliation:
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Toshio Nakamura
Affiliation:
Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
Katsuhiko Kimura
Affiliation:
Fukushima University, Fukushima, Japan
Masataka Hakozaki
Affiliation:
National Museum of Japanese History, Tokyo, Japan
A J Timothy Jull
Affiliation:
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
Todd E Lange
Affiliation:
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
Richard Cruz
Affiliation:
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
Irina P Panyushkina
Affiliation:
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
Chris Baisan
Affiliation:
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
Matthew W Salzer
Affiliation:
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
*
*Corresponding author. Email: fmiyake@isee.nagoya-u.ac.jp.
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Two radiocarbon excursions (AD 774–775 and AD 993–994) occurred due to an increase of incoming cosmic rays on a short timescale. The most plausible cause of these events is considered to be extreme solar proton events (SPE). It is possible that there are other annual 14C excursions in the past that have yet to be confirmed. In order to detect more of these events, we measured the 14C contents in bristlecone pine tree-ring samples during the periods when the rate of 14C increase in the IntCal data is large. We analyzed four periods every other year (2479–2455 BC, 4055–4031 BC, 4465–4441 BC, and 4689–4681 BC), and found no anomalous 14C excursions during these periods. This study confirms that it is important to do continuous measurements to find annual cosmic-ray events at other locations in the tree-ring record.

Keywords

cosmogenic nuclidesannual cosmic-ray event
Type
Rapid Event in the Natural Atmospheric 14C Content
Information
Radiocarbon , Volume 59 , Special Issue 2: Proceedings of the 22nd International Radiocarbon Conference (Part 1 of 2) , April 2017 , pp. 315 - 320
Copyright
© 2016 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona 

INTRODUCTION

Annual large increases and subsequent decay in the radiocarbon content of tree rings were originally found in Japanese tree-ring samples. These increases were reported in the periods from AD 774–775 and AD 993–994 (Miyake et al. Reference Miyake, Nagaya, Masuda and Nakamura2012, Reference Miyake, Masuda and Nakamura2013). The AD 775 event has been confirmed by independent measurements using different trees from all over the world (Usoskin et al. Reference Usoskin, Kromer, Ludlow, Beer, Friedrich, Kovaltsov, Solanki and Wacker2013; Jull et al. Reference Jull, Panyushkina, Lange, Kukarskih, Myglan, Clark, Salzer, Burr and Leavitt2014; Güttler et al. Reference Güttler, Adolphi, Beer, Bleicher, Boswijk, Christl, Hogg, Palmer, Vockenhuber, Wacker and Wunder2015). On the other hand, although the AD 994 event was confirmed by 14C measurements of several tree-ring samples, it is disputed whether the event occurred between AD 992–993 or AD 993–994 (Miyake et al. Reference Miyake, Masuda, Hakozaki, Nakamura, Tokanai, Kato, Kimura and Mitsutani2014; Lukas Wacker, personal communication, 2016).

The best explanation is that these events reflect rapid increases of incoming cosmic-ray intensity within 1 yr. Possible causes have been proposed by several studies, including a nearby supernova, a cometary impact on the Earth, a gamma-ray burst, and an extreme solar proton event (SPE) (Eichler and Mordecai Reference Eichler and Mordecai2012; Miyake et al. Reference Miyake, Nagaya, Masuda and Nakamura2012, Hambaryan and Neuhäuser Reference Hambaryan and Neuhäuser2013; Pavlov et al. Reference Pavlov, Blinov, Konstantinov, Ostryakov, Vasilyev, Vdovina and Volkov2013; Thomas et al. Reference Thomas, Melott, Arkenberg and Snyder2013; Usoskin et al. Reference Usoskin, Kromer, Ludlow, Beer, Friedrich, Kovaltsov, Solanki and Wacker2013; Cliver et al. Reference Cliver, Tylka, Dietrich and Ling2013; Liu et al. Reference Liu, Zhang, Peng, Ling, Shen, Liu, Sun, Shen, Liu and Sun2014; Mekhaldi et al. Reference Mekhaldi, Muscheler, Adolphi, Aldahan, Beer, McConnell, Possnert, Sigl, Svensson, Synal, Welten and Woodruff2015). Recent studies regarding a quasi-annual measurement of 10Be concentrations in ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland reported corresponding 10Be increases around AD 775 and AD 994 (Mekhaldi et al. Reference Mekhaldi, Muscheler, Adolphi, Aldahan, Beer, McConnell, Possnert, Sigl, Svensson, Synal, Welten and Woodruff2015; Miyake et al. Reference Miyake, Suzuki, Masuda, Horiuchi, Motoyama, Matsuzaki, Motizuki, Takahashi and Nakai2015; Sigl et al. Reference Sigl, Winstrup, McConnell, Welten, Plunkett, Ludlow, Büntgen, Caffee, Chellman, Jensen, Fischer, Kipfstuhl, Kostick, Maselli, Mekhaldi, Mulvaney, Muscheler, Pasteris, Pilcher, Salzer, Schüpbach, Steffensen, Vinther and Woodruff2015). Considering the existence of the 10Be peaks in both hemispheres around two cosmic-ray events, it is highly likely that the sources of the two 14C increase events are extreme SPEs (Usoskin et al. Reference Usoskin, Kromer, Ludlow, Beer, Friedrich, Kovaltsov, Solanki and Wacker2013; Mekhaldi et al. Reference Mekhaldi, Muscheler, Adolphi, Aldahan, Beer, McConnell, Possnert, Sigl, Svensson, Synal, Welten and Woodruff2015; Miyake et al. Reference Miyake, Suzuki, Masuda, Horiuchi, Motoyama, Matsuzaki, Motizuki, Takahashi and Nakai2015).

The scale of the AD 775 event has been estimated as ~50 times larger than the extreme SPE that occurred in AD 1956 (Usoskin and Kovaltsov Reference Usoskin and Kovaltsov2012; Usoskin et al. Reference Usoskin, Kromer, Ludlow, Beer, Friedrich, Kovaltsov, Solanki and Wacker2013), or more than 5 times larger than the largest historical SPE (Mekhaldi et al. Reference Mekhaldi, Muscheler, Adolphi, Aldahan, Beer, McConnell, Possnert, Sigl, Svensson, Synal, Welten and Woodruff2015). Although annual 14C data exist around AD 1856 when the historical largest Carrington flare occurred, the data during this period show no increase (Miyake et al. Reference Miyake, Masuda and Nakamura2013; Jull et al. Reference Jull, Panyushkina, Lange, Kukarskih, Myglan, Clark, Salzer, Burr and Leavitt2014). If we assume the 14C increase of the Carrington flare is within the measurement error (~2‰) around AD 1856, the AD 775 event should be at least 10 times larger than the Carrington event. If such a large SPE occurred today, heavy damage would result on our modern electronic society. It is very important to investigate an occurrence rate of these events to contribute to our understanding of space weather and to understand the frequency of solar activities. Also, such a 14C excursion can be useful to give an age determination with 1-yr precision where it occurs for historical or geological samples. For example, Wacker et al. (Reference Wacker, Güttler, Goll, Hurni, Synal and Walti2014) were able to date a wooden beam in a church to 1 yr based on this approach. A 14C event also gives a new possibility to date ice cores with 1-yr resolution (Sigl et al. Reference Sigl, Winstrup, McConnell, Welten, Plunkett, Ludlow, Büntgen, Caffee, Chellman, Jensen, Fischer, Kipfstuhl, Kostick, Maselli, Mekhaldi, Mulvaney, Muscheler, Pasteris, Pilcher, Salzer, Schüpbach, Steffensen, Vinther and Woodruff2015).

The findings of the two 14C increase events in the last 2 millennia indicate that more yet undetected events are available in tree-ring records going back to 12,000 BP. However, without the 14C measurements with annual or at least biannual time resolution, we cannot detect such 14C excursions. Although smaller annual variations are not observable in the IntCal (Reimer et al. Reference Reimer, Bard, Bayliss, Beck, Blackwell, Bronk Ramsey, Buck, Cheng, Edwards, Friedrich, Grootes, Guilderson, Haflidason, Hajdas, Hatté, Heaton, Hoffman, Hogg, Hughen, Kaiser, Kromer, Manning, Niu, Reimer, Richards, Scott, Southon, Staff, Turney and van der Plicht2013) data with 5-yr resolution due to the averaging IntCal employs, it is possible that a large annual 14C increase event would appear in the IntCal data. Actually, the increase rate (‰/yr) of the AD 775 event is one of the largest (0.4‰/yr) in the IntCal13 data (Reimer et al. Reference Reimer, Bard, Bayliss, Beck, Blackwell, Bronk Ramsey, Buck, Cheng, Edwards, Friedrich, Grootes, Guilderson, Haflidason, Hajdas, Hatté, Heaton, Hoffman, Hogg, Hughen, Kaiser, Kromer, Manning, Niu, Reimer, Richards, Scott, Southon, Staff, Turney and van der Plicht2013) during the past 12,000 yr. There are 15 events where increase rates are larger than 0.3‰/yr in the IntCal13 data for these 12,000 yr (Figure 1), and it is possible that annual 14C increase events are hidden in these periods. We report 14C results for four time intervals (4680, 4440, 4030, and 2455 BC), which show rates of increase larger than 0.3‰/yr with 2-yr time resolution.

Figure 1 Carbon-14 content (Δ14C) for the last 12,000 yr (IntCa13: Reimer et al. Reference Reimer, Bard, Bayliss, Beck, Blackwell, Bronk Ramsey, Buck, Cheng, Edwards, Friedrich, Grootes, Guilderson, Haflidason, Hajdas, Hatté, Heaton, Hoffman, Hogg, Hughen, Kaiser, Kromer, Manning, Niu, Reimer, Richards, Scott, Southon, Staff, Turney and van der Plicht2013). The arrows show the periods when the increase rates of the Δ14C data are more than 0.3‰/yr. We analyzed the 4680, 4440, 4030, and 2455 BC time intervals in this paper.

SAMPLES AND METHODS

We analyzed four bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) samples (Figure 2). All of the samples were dated by the dendrochronological method and are now archived at the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research (LTRR) at the University of Arizona in Tucson. The samples were collected in the White Mountains of California (37.3794°N, 118.1654°W) as part of a decades-long effort by multiple researchers at the LTRR (see, for example, Ferguson Reference Ferguson1969; LaMarche and Harlan Reference LaMarche and Harlan1973; Salzer et al. Reference Salzer, Bunn, Graham and Hughes2014). We separated annual rings carefully using a knife under a dissecting microscope. Our study focused on four intervals in the BC time period: 2479–2455, 4055–4031, 4465–4441, and 4689–4681 BC. The time resolution of our measurement is 2 yr (i.e. we measured every other annual ring). There were no missing rings in the intervals examined.

Figure 2 Bristlecone pine samples for this study. These samples came from the White Mountains of California, USA (37.3794°N, 118.1654°W).

We extracted hemi-cellulose from sliced wood samples by a standard cellulose extraction method. Chemical cleaning consisted of an AAA treatment and a sodium chlorite treatment, and the cellulose samples were combusted and converted to graphite in the chemistry laboratory of the AMS laboratory in the University of Arizona. The 14C contents were measured using the 2.5MV National Electrostatics Corporation AMS at the University of Arizona lab.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

We obtained Δ14C data for four intervals by using the calculation method of Stuiver and Polach (Reference Stuiver and Polach1977). Figure 3 shows the measured results in Δ14C values (‰), which are compared with the IntCal13 curve and the original Δ14C data of IntCal13. The measured data are listed in Table S1 in the online Supplementary Material.

Although we expected to see the annual increase and subsequent decay in the Δ14C due to a cosmic-ray event, the data show no such variation. The 4680, 4440, and 2455 BC time intervals basically show a good agreement with the IntCal series within measurement errors. However, there are some offsets between our results, and the interpolated IntCal13 data were about 4.9‰ lower for the 4440 BC interval and 3.9‰ lower for the 2455 BC interval on average. On the other hand, some data of the 4030 BC time interval are significantly different from that of IntCal13. The data of 4045 and 4035 BC are more than 3σ different (3× measurement error) from the IntCal line. Although these two points (4045 and 4035 BC) increase rapidly, the following variation is not continuous. If there is only a cosmic-ray input with a short timescale (<1 yr), the variation should be a rapid increase followed by decay like the AD 775 event (Miyake et al. Reference Miyake, Nagaya, Masuda and Nakamura2012; Usoskin et al. Reference Usoskin, Kromer, Ludlow, Beer, Friedrich, Kovaltsov, Solanki and Wacker2013; Güttler et al. Reference Güttler, Adolphi, Beer, Bleicher, Boswijk, Christl, Hogg, Palmer, Vockenhuber, Wacker and Wunder2015). Since there is no possible natural origin to explain the two points of 4045 and 4035 BC, we hypothesize that these data deviate due to some experimental problems. It will be necessary to remeasure these points to establish the accurate 14C variation. Nevertheless, even if the two points are valid, the 14C pattern does not reflect an annual cosmic-ray event.

From the present measurements during the periods when the IntCal13 data show a large change, we determined the following: (1) the 4680 BC event does not show any increase; (2) the 4440 and 2455 BC events increase continuously, which is consistent with the IntCal data; (3) the 4030 BC event is almost consistent with the IntCal data but two points (4045 and 4035 BC) are significantly different from IntCal; and (4) we could not detect any annual cosmic-ray event like the AD 775 event for the four intervals.

In the case of the AD 994 event, the annual increase is not visible in the IntCal data due to the averaging of the IntCal data. Therefore, there may be other smaller annual cosmic-ray events that are not shown in the IntCal data. However, it seems unlikely that an event as strong as (or stronger than) the AD 775 event may be found in the Holocene, given that of the 15 best candidates for such 14C excursions (Figure 1), already five intervals (four intervals of this study plus the 19th century increase; Stuiver et al. Reference Stuiver, Reiver and Braziunas1998) have been demonstrated to lack the spike and decay pattern characteristic of cosmic-ray events.

CONCLUSIONS

We measured the 14C content for the periods of 2479–2455, 4055–4031, 4465–4441, and 4689–5681 BC to investigate possible rapid 14C excursion events at annual resolution. The results obtained did not show any such annual events. In order to detect more annual 14C increase events, it is important to conduct a detailed survey of continuous annual 14C measurements. We plan to survey continuous 14C data with 1-yr or 2-yr resolution over the last 12,000 yr in the future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The lead author’s work is supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant number 26887019 and JSPS Program for Advancing Strategic International Networks to Accelerate the Circulation of Talented Researchers under grant number G2602. We also thank the staff of the Arizona AMS Laboratory for their technical assistance.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

To view supplementary material for this article, please visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2016.54

Footnotes

Selected Papers from the 2015 Radiocarbon Conference, Dakar, Senegal, 16–20 November 2015

References

REFERENCES

Bronk Ramsey, C, Staff, RA, Bryant, CL, Brock, F, Kitagawa, H, van der Plicht, J, Schlolaut, G, Marshall, MH, Brauer, A, Lamb, HF, Payne, RL, Tarasov, PE, Haraguchi, T, Gotanda, K, Yonenobu, H, Yokoyama, Y, Tada, R, Nakagawa, T. 2012. A complete terrestrial radiocarbon record for 11.2 to 52.8 kyr B.P. Science 338(6105):370–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cliver, EW, Tylka, AJ, Dietrich, WF, Ling, AG. 2013. On a solar origin for the cosmogenic nuclide event of 775 A.D. The Astrophysical Journal 781:32.Google Scholar
Eichler, D, Mordecai, D. 2012. Comet encounters and carbon 14. The Astrophysical Journal Letters 761:L27.Google Scholar
Ferguson, CW. 1969. A 7104-year annual tree-ring chronology for bristlecone pine, Pinus aristata, from the White Mountains of California. Tree-Ring Bulletin 29(3–4):3–29.Google Scholar
Güttler, D, Adolphi, F, Beer, J, Bleicher, N, Boswijk, G, Christl, M, Hogg, A, Palmer, J, Vockenhuber, C, Wacker, L, Wunder, J. 2015. Rapid increase in cosmogenic 14C in AD 775 measured in New Zealand kauri trees indicates short-lived increase in 14C production spanning both hemispheres. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 411:290–297.Google Scholar
Hambaryan, VV, Neuhäuser, R. 2013. A galactic short gamma-ray burst as cause for the 14C peak in AD 774/5. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 430(1):32–36.Google Scholar
Jull, AJT, Panyushkina, IP, Lange, TE, Kukarskih, VV, Myglan, VS, Clark, KJ, Salzer, MW, Burr, GS, Leavitt, SW. 2014. Excursions in the 14C record at A.D. 774–775 in tree rings from Russia and America. Geophysical Research Letters 41(8):3004–3010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kromer, B, Rhein, M, Bruns, M, Schoch-Fischer, H, Münnich, KO, Stuiver, M, Becker, B. 1986. Radiocarbon calibration data for the 6th to the 8th millennia BC. Radiocarbon 28(2B):954–960.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaMarche, VC Jr, Harlan, TP. 1973. Accuracy of tree ring dating of bristlecone pine for calibration of the radiocarbon time scale. Journal of Geophysical Research 78(36):8849–8858.Google Scholar
Liu, Y, Zhang, Z, Peng, Z, Ling, M, Shen, CC, Liu, W, Sun, X, Shen, C, Liu, K, Sun, W. 2014. Mysterious abrupt carbon-14 increase in coral contributed by a comet. Nature Communications 4:3728.Google Scholar
Mekhaldi, F, Muscheler, R, Adolphi, F, Aldahan, A, Beer, J, McConnell, JR, Possnert, G, Sigl, M, Svensson, A, Synal, H-A, Welten, KC, Woodruff, TE. 2015. Multiradionuclide evidence for the solar origin of the cosmic-ray events of AD 774/5 and 993/4. Nature Communications 6:8611.Google Scholar
Miyake, F, Nagaya, K, Masuda, K, Nakamura, T. 2012. A signature of cosmic-ray increase in AD 774–775 from tree rings in Japan. Nature 486(7402):240–242.Google Scholar
Miyake, F, Masuda, K, Nakamura, T. 2013. Another rapid event in the carbon-14 content of tree rings. Nature Communications 4:1748.Google Scholar
Miyake, F, Masuda, K, Hakozaki, M, Nakamura, T, Tokanai, F, Kato, K, Kimura, K, Mitsutani, T. 2014. Verification of the cosmic-ray event in AD 993–994 by using a Japanese Hinoki tree. Radiocarbon 56(4):1189–1194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miyake, F, Suzuki, A, Masuda, K, Horiuchi, K, Motoyama, H, Matsuzaki, H, Motizuki, Y, Takahashi, K, Nakai, Y. 2015. Cosmic ray event of A.D. 774–775 shown in quasi-annual 10Be data from the Antarctic Dome Fuji ice core. Geophysical Research Letters 42(1):84–89.Google Scholar
Pavlov, AK, Blinov, AV, Konstantinov, AN, Ostryakov, VM, Vasilyev, GI, Vdovina, MA, Volkov, PA. 2013. AD 775 pulse of cosmogenic radionuclides production as imprint of a galactic gamma-ray burst. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 435(4):2878–2884.Google Scholar
Pearson, GW, Pilcher, JR, Baillie, MGL, Corbett, DM, Qua, F. 1986. High-precision 14C measurement of Irish oaks to show the natural 14C variations from AD 1840 to 5210 BC. Radiocarbon 28(2B):911–934.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reimer, PJ, Bard, E, Bayliss, A, Beck, JW, Blackwell, PG, Bronk Ramsey, C, Buck, CE, Cheng, H, Edwards, RL, Friedrich, M, Grootes, PM, Guilderson, TP, Haflidason, H, Hajdas, I, Hatté, C, Heaton, TJ, Hoffman, DL, Hogg, AG, Hughen, KA, Kaiser, KF, Kromer, B, Manning, SW, Niu, M, Reimer, RW, Richards, DA, Scott, EM, Southon, JR, Staff, RA, Turney, CSM, van der Plicht, J. 2013. IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves, 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55(4):1869–1887.Google Scholar
Salzer, MW, Bunn, AG, Graham, NE, Hughes, MK. 2014. Five millennia of paleotemperature from tree-rings in the Great Basin, USA. Climate Dynamics 42(5):1517–1526.Google Scholar
Sigl, M, Winstrup, M, McConnell, JR, Welten, KC, Plunkett, G, Ludlow, F, Büntgen, U, Caffee, M, Chellman, N, Jensen, DD, Fischer, H, Kipfstuhl, S, Kostick, C, Maselli, OJ, Mekhaldi, F, Mulvaney, R, Muscheler, R, Pasteris, DR, Pilcher, JR, Salzer, M, Schüpbach, S, Steffensen, JP, Vinther, BM, Woodruff, RE. 2015. Timing and climate forcing of volcanic eruptions for the past 2,500 years. Nature 523(7562):543–549.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M, Braziunas, TF. 1993. Sun, ocean, climate and atmospheric 14CO2: an evaluation of causal and spectral relationships. The Holocene 3(4):289–305.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M, Polach, HA. 1977. Discussion: reporting of 14C data. Radiocarbon 19(3):355–363.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M, Reiver, PJ, Braziunas, TF. 1998. High-precision radiocarbon age calibration for terrestrial and marine samples. Radiocarbon 40(3):1127–1151.Google Scholar
Thomas, BC, Melott, AL, Arkenberg, KR, Snyder, BR II. 2013. Terrestrial effects of possible astrophysical sources of an AD 774–775 increase in 14C production. Geophysical Research Letters 40(6):1237–1240.Google Scholar
Usoskin, IG, Kovaltsov, GA. 2012. Occurrence of extreme solar particle events: assessment from historical proxy data. The Astrophysical Journal 757:92.Google Scholar
Usoskin, IG, Kromer, B, Ludlow, F, Beer, J, Friedrich, M, Kovaltsov, GA, Solanki, SK, Wacker, L. 2013. The AD775 cosmic event revisited: the Sun is to blame. Astronomy & Astrophysics 552:L3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogel, JC, van der Plicht, J. 1993. Calibration curve for short-lived samples, 1900–3900 BC. Radiocarbon 35(1):87–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wacker, L, Güttler, D, Goll, J, Hurni, JP, Synal, H-A, Walti, N. 2014. Radiocarbon dating to a single year by means of rapid atmospheric 14C changes. Radiocarbon 56(2):573–579.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Figure 0

Figure 1 Carbon-14 content (Δ14C) for the last 12,000 yr (IntCa13: Reimer et al. 2013). The arrows show the periods when the increase rates of the Δ14C data are more than 0.3‰/yr. We analyzed the 4680, 4440, 4030, and 2455 BC time intervals in this paper.

Figure 1

Figure 2 Bristlecone pine samples for this study. These samples came from the White Mountains of California, USA (37.3794°N, 118.1654°W).

Figure 2

Figure 3 Comparison of measured results from this study (black circles), the original data of the IntCal13: QL: blue squares (Stuiver and Braziunas 1993), UB: orange triangles (Pearson et al. 1986), Hd: green diamonds (Kromer et al. 1986), SUREC: black star (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2012), Pta: blue stars (Vogel and van der Plicht 1993), and Oxa: red circles (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2012), and the IntCal13 data (gray line) (Reimer et al. 2013). Please see online version for color.

Supplementary material: File

Miyake supplementary material

Supplementary Table

Download Miyake supplementary material(File)
File 16.8 KB