Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-wq2xx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-16T18:51:47.682Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Historical Knowledge and Quantitative Analysis: The Case of the Origins of Proportional Representation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 May 2010

MARCUS KREUZER
MARCUS KREUZER*
Affiliation:
Villanova University
*
Marcus Kreuzer is Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, Villanova University, 800 Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA 19085 (markus.kreuzer@villanova.edu).
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Political scientists commonly draw on history but often do not read actual historians carefully. This limited engagement with historians, and with contextual information more generally, contributes to a loss of historical knowledge that can undermine the validity of quantitative analysis. This article makes this argument by means of an examination of the qualitative evidence underlying the important quantitative arguments about the origins of electoral systems advanced by Carles Boix and by Thomas Cusack, Torben Iversen, and David Soskice. The article explores how their respective attention to historical knowledge affects the quality of their data, the plausibility of their hypotheses, and, ultimately, the robustness of their statistical findings. It also analyzes how such knowledge sheds new light on the causal direction between institutions and their economic effects.

Type
Forum
Information
American Political Science Review , Volume 104 , Issue 2 , May 2010 , pp. 369 - 392
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aardal, Bernt. 2002. “Electoral Systems in Norway.” In The Evolution of Electoral and Party Systems in the Nordic Countries, eds. Grofman, B. and Lijphart, A.. New York: Agathon Press, 167–220.Google Scholar
Alesina, Alberto, and Glaeser, Edward L.. 2004. Fighting Poverty in the US and Europe: A World of Difference. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, George, and Bennett, Andrew. 2004. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. 2000. Practicing Democracy: Elections and Political Culture in Imperial Germany. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrews, Josephine, and Jackman, Robert. 2004. “Strategic Fools: Electoral Rule Choice under Extreme Uncertainty.” Electoral Studies 24: 65–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armingeon, Klaus. 1994. Staat und Arbeitsbeziehungen: ein internationaler Vergleich. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, John H. 2000. History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barber, Kathleen L. 1995. Proportional Representation and Election Reform in Ohio. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.Google Scholar
Beck, Nathaniel. 2006. “Is Causal-Process Observation an Oxymoron?” Political Analysis 14 (3): 347–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, Andrew, and Elman, Colin. 2006. “Complex Causal Relations and Case Study Methods: The Example of Path Dependence.” Political Analysis 14 (3): 250–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berend, T. Iván, and Ránki, György. 1974. Economic Development in East-Central Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Blais, André, Dobrzynska, Agnieszka, and Indridason, Indridi H.. 2005. “To Adopt or Not to Adopt Proportional Representation: The Politics of Institutional Choice.” British Journal of Political Science 35 (1): 182–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boix, Carles. 1999. “Setting the Rules of the Game: The Choice of Electoral Systems in Advanced Democracies.” American Political Science Review 93 (3): 609–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonnell, Victoria. 1990. “Russia.” In The Formation of Labour Movements 1870–1914, ed. Rojahn, J.. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 453–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brady, Henry E., and Collier, David. 2004. Rethinking Social Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Braunias, Karl. 1932. Das parlamentarische Wahlrecht: ein Handbuch über die Bildung der gesetzgebenden Körperschaften in Europa. Berlin: De Gruyter.Google Scholar
Calvo, Ernesto. 2009. “The Competitive Road to Proportional Representation.” World Politics 61 (2): 254–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caramani, Daniele. 2000. Elections in Western Europe since 1815: Electoral Result by Constituencies. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carstairs, Andrew McLaren. 1980. A Short History of Electoral Systems in Western Europe. London: Allen & Unwin.Google Scholar
Cleary, M.C. 1989. Peasants, Politicians, and Producers: The Organisation of Agriculture in France since 1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, Alistair, and Campbell, Peter. 1989. French Electoral Systems and Elections since 1789. Aldershot: Gower.Google Scholar
Colomer, Josep. 2005. “It's Parties That Choose Electoral Systems (or, Duverger's Laws Upside Down).” Political Studies 53: 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crouch, Colin. 1993. Industrial Relations and European State Traditions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cusack, Thomas, Iversen, Torben, and Soskice, David. 2007. “Economic Interests and the Origins of Electoral Systems.” American Political Science Review 101 (3): 373–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daalder, Hans. 1975. “Extreme Proportional Representation: The Dutch Experience.” In Adversary Politics and Electoral Reform, ed. Finer, S.E.. London: Wigram, 223–48.Google Scholar
Department of Justice. 1986. “Appendix A: The Electoral Law of New Zealand.” In Report of the Royal Commision on Electoral Systems, ed. Department of Justice. Wellington: Government Printer, 1–105.Google Scholar
Drabek, Z. 1985. “Foreign Trade Performance and Policy.” In The Economic History of Eastern Europe 1919–1975, eds. Kaser, M.C. and Radice, E.A.. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 379–466.Google Scholar
Drachmann, Povl. 1914. The Industrial Development and Commercial Policies of the Three Scandinavian Countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ebbinghaus, Bernhard. 1995. “The Siamese Twins: Citizenship Rights, Cleavage Formation and Party-Union Relations in Western Europe.” International Review of Social History 40 (3): 51–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eddie, Scott. 1989. “Economic Policy and Economic Development in Austria-Hungary, 1867–1913.” In The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, eds. Mathias, P. and Pollard, S.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 814–86.Google Scholar
Eley, Geoff. 2002. “Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000.” New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elklit, Jorgen. 1992. “The Best of Both Worlds? The Danish Electoral System 1915–20 in a Comparative Perspective.” Electoral Studies 11 (3): 189–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elklit, Jorgen. 2002. “The Politics of Electoral System Development and Change: The Danish Case.” In The Evolution of Electoral and Party Systems in the Nordic Countries, eds. Grofman, B. and Lijphart, A.. New York: Agathon Press, 15–64.Google Scholar
Esping-Andersen, Gøsta. 1985. Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Road to Power. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Estevez-Abe, Margarita, Iversen, Torben, and Soskice, David. 2001. “Social Protection and the Formation of Skills: A Reinterpretation of the Welfare State.” In Varieties of Capitalism: The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage, eds. Hall, P.A. and Soskice, D.W.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 145–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falleti, Tulia, and Lynch, Julia. 2009. “Context and Causation in Political Analysis.” Comparative Political Studies 42 (9): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farrell, David M., and McAllister, Ian. 2005. “1902 and the Origins of Preferential Electoral Systems in Australia.” Australian Journal of Politics & History 51 (2): 155–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flora, Peter. 1983. State, Economy, and Society in Western Europe 1815–1975: A Data Handbook in Two Volumes. Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franzosi, Roberto. 2004. From Words to Numbers: Narrative, Data, and Social Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Franzosi, Roberto. 2006. “Historical Knowledge and Evidence.” In Oxford Political Handbook of Contextual Analysis, eds. Goodin, R. and Tilly, C.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 438–53.Google Scholar
Friedman, Milton. 1953. “The Methodology of Positive Economics.” In Essays in Positive Economics, ed. Friedman, M.. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 3–43.Google Scholar
Glissen, John. 1980. “Zur Entwicklung des Wahlrechts im Benelux-Raum 1814 bis 1922.” In Wählerbewegung in der europäischen Geschichte, ed. Büsch, O.. Berlin: Colloquium Verlag, 338–64.Google Scholar
Gollwitzer, Heinz, ed. 1977. Europäische Bauernparteien im 20. Jahrhundert. Stuttgart: Fischer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Good, David F. 1984. The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire, 1750–1914. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gourevitch, Peter Alexis, and Shinn, James. 2005. Political Power and Corporate Control: The New Global Politics of Corporate Governance. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Grass, Karl-Martin. 1969. “Österreich.” In Die Wahl der Parlamente. Ein Handbuch., eds. Sternberger, D., Vogel, B. and Nohlen, D.. Berlin: De Gruyter, 921–72.Google Scholar
Gruner, Erich. 1956. Die Wirtschaftsverbände in der Demokratie. Vom Wachstum der Wirtschaftsorganisationen im Schweizerischen Staat. Zürich: Eugen Rentsch.Google Scholar
Guinnane, T.W. 1994. “A Failed Institutional Transplant—Raiffeisens Credit Cooperatives in Ireland, 1894–1914.” Explorations in Economic History 31 (1): 38–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, Peter. 2003. “Aligning Ontology and Methodology in Comparative Politics.” In Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, eds. Mahoney, J. and Rueschmeyer, D.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 373–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanisch, Ernst. 1994. Österreichische Geschichte, 1890–1990: Der lange Schatten des Staates. Wien: Ueberreuter.Google Scholar
Hardarson, Olafur. 2002. “The Icelandic Electoral System, 1844–1999.” In The Evolution of Electoral and Party Systems in the Nordic Countries, eds. Grofman, B. and Lijphart, A.. New York: Agathon Press, 101–64.Google Scholar
Hechter, Michael, and Brustein, William. 1980. “Regional Modes of Production and Patterns of State Formation in Western Europe.” American Journal of Sociology 85: 1067–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hepple, B.A. 1986. The Making of Labour Law in Europe: A Comparative Study of Nine Countries up to 1945. New York: Mansell.Google Scholar
Herlitz, Nils. 1925. “Proportional Representation in Sweden.” American Political Science Review 19 (3): 582–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hermens, F.A. 1941. Democracy or Anarchy? A Study of Proportional Representation. South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
Herrigel, Gary. 1996. Industrial Constructions: The Sources of German Industrial Power. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz (Historical Dictionary of Switzerland). n.d. Available at: www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/index.php. Accessed April 16, 2010.Google Scholar
Hitchins, Keith. 1990. “Hungary.” In The Formation of Labour Movements 1870–1914, eds. Van der Linden, M. and Rojahn, J.. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 347–68.Google Scholar
Hornby, Ove. 1985. “Nordeuropa: Dänemark, Norwegen und Schweden 1850–1914.” In Handbuch der Europäischen Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte, eds. Fischer, W. and Aremnagud, A.. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 206–60.Google Scholar
Iversen, Torben, and Soskice, David. 2006. “Electoral Institutions and the Politics of Coalitions: Why Some Democracies Redistribute More Than Others.” American Political Science Review 100 (2): 165–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, Hans Ulrich. 1990. “Switzerland.” In The Formation of Labour Movements 1870–1914, eds. Van der Linden, M. and Rojahn, J.. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 271–92.Google Scholar
Kaminski, Marek. 2002. “Do Parties Benefit from Electoral Manipulation? Electoral Laws and Heresthetics in Poland, 1989–93.” Journal of Theoretical Politics 14 (3): 325–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katzenstein, Peter. 1985. Small States in World Markets. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
King, Gary, Keohane, Robert, and Verba, Sidney. 1994. Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knapp, Peter. 1984. “Can Social Science Escape from History: Views of History in Social Science.” History and Theory 23 (1): 34–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koralka, Jiri. 1990. “The Czech Workers’ Movement in the Hapsburg Empire.” In The Formation of Labour Movements 1870–1914, eds. van der Linden, M. and Rojahn, J.. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 321–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraft, Rolf, and Nohlen, Dieter. 1969. “Dänmark.” In Die Wahl der Parlamente. Ein Handbuch, eds. Sternberger, D., Vogel, B., and Nohlen, D.. Berlin: De Gruyter, 153–88.Google Scholar
Kreuzer, Marcus. 1996. “From Co-Optation to Competition: Changing Forms of Electoral Corruption in Nineteenth Century France.” In Political Corruption in Latin American and European Perspective, eds. Little, W. and Posada-Carbo, E.. London: McMillan, 97–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreuzer, Marcus. 2001. Institutions and Innovation: Voters, Parties, and Interest Groups in the Consolidation of Democracy: France and Germany, 1870–1939. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Kreuzer, Marcus. 2003. “Parliamentarization and the Question of German Exceptionalism, 1867–1918.” Central European History 36 (3): 327–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kreuzer, Marcus, and Pettai, Vello. 2004. “Political Parties and the Study of Political Development: New Insights from the Post-Communist Democracies.” World Politics 56: 608–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laakso, M., and Taagepera, Rein. 1979. “Effective Number of Parties: A Measure with Application to West Europe.” Comparative Political Studies 12 (1): 3–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lehmbruch, Gerhard. 1967. Proporzdemokratie: Politisches System und politische Kultur in der Schweiz und in Österreich. Tübingen: Mohr/Siebeck.Google Scholar
Leonardi, A. 2006. “Italian Credit Cooperatives between Expansion and Retrenchment: 1883–1945.” Presented at International Economic History Congress, Helsinki, Finland.Google Scholar
Lewis, Gavin. 1978. “The Peasantry, Rural Change and Conservatism: Lower Austria at the Turn of the Century.” Past and Present 81: 119–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lijphart, Arend. [1975] 1968. Politics of Accomodation. Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1983. “‘Radicalism or Reformism: The Sources of Working-Class Politics.’” American Political Science Review 77/1 (March 1983): 1–18.” American Political Science Review 77 (1): 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lustick, Ian S. 1996. “History, Historiography, and Political Science: Multiple Historical Records and the Problem of Selection Bias.” American Political Science Review 90 (3): 605–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lutz, Georg. 2004. “Switzerland: Introducing PR from Below.” In Handbook of Electoral System Choice, ed. Colomer, J.. Houndsmill: Palgrave, 279–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackie, Thomas, and Rose, Richard. 1991. The International Almanac of Electoral History. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddison, Angus. 2001. The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective. Paris: Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maizels, Alfred. 1963. Industrial Growth and World Trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mares, Isabela. 2003. The Politics of Social Risk. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Marshall, Ray. 1958. “The Finnish Cooperative Movement.” Land Economics 34: 227–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, Cathie Jo, and Swank, Duane. 2008. “The Political Origins of Coordinated Capitalism: Business Organizations Party Systems and State Structure in the Age of Innocence.” American Political Science Review 102 (2): 181–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mavrogordatos, George. 1982. Stillborn Republic: Social Coalitions and Party Strategies in Greece, 1922–36. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Mitchell, B.R. 1982. International Historical Statistics: Africa & Asia. New York: New York University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, B.R. 1983. International Historical Statistics: The Americas and Australasia. Detroit: Gale Research.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, B.R. 1992. International Historical Statistics: Europe, 1750–1988. 3rd ed. New York: Stockton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moser, Robert G. 2001. Unexpected Outcomes. Electoral Systems, Political Parties and Representation in Russia. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Natsch, Rudolf. 1967. “Die Auseinandersetzung um das gerechte Wahlverfahren im 19th Jahrhundert.” In Festgabe Hans von Greyers, eds. Walder, E., Gilg, P. and Mesmer, B.. Bern: Herbert Lang, 535–58.Google Scholar
Nohlen, Dieter. 1969a. “Finland.” In Die Wahl der Parlamente. Ein Handbuch, eds. Sternberger, D., Vogel, B. and Nohlen, D.. Berlin: De Gruyter, 413–40.Google Scholar
Nohlen, Dieter. 1969b. “Italien.” In Die Wahl der Parlamente. Ein Handbuch, eds. Sternberger, D., Vogel, B. and Nohlen, D.. Berlin: De Gruyter, 712–52.Google Scholar
O'Leary, Cornelius. 1979. Irish Elections, 1918–77: Parties, Voters, and Proportional Representation. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
O'Rourke, Kevin, and Williamson, Jeffrey. 1999. Globalization and History: the Evolution of a Nineteenth Century Atlantic Economy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paxton, Robert. 1997. French Peasant Fascism: Henry Dorgeres's Greentshirts and the Crisis of French Agriculture, 1929–39. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pelinka, Anton. 1966. “Die Geschichte des Wahlrechts in der Ersten Republik.” In Wahlen und Parteien in Osterreich: Osterreichisches Wahlhandbuch, eds. Stiefbold, R.P.. Vienna: Osterreichischer Bundesverlag, 265–71.Google Scholar
Penadés, Alberto. 2008. “Choosing Rules for Government: The Institutional Preferences of Early Socialist Parties.” In Controlling Governments. Voters, Institutions, and Accountability, eds. Maravall, J.M. and Sanchéz-Cuenca, I.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 202–46.Google Scholar
Persson, Torsten, and Tabellini, Guido Enrico. 2003. The Economic Effects of Constitutions. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Przeworski, Adam, and Sprague, John. 1986. Paper Stones: A History of Electoral Socialism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Przeworski, Adam, and Teune, Henry. 1970. The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Puhle, Hans-Jürgen. 1970. “Parlament, Parteien und Interessenverbände 1890–1914.” In Das kaiserliche Deutschland. Politik und Gesellschaft, 1870–1918, ed. Stürmer, M.. Düsseldorf: Droste, 340–77.Google Scholar
Puhle, Hans-Jürgen. 1975. “Politische Agrarbewegungen in kapitalistischen Industriegesellschaften: Deutschland, USA u. Frankreich im 20. Jahrhundert.” Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ragin, Charles. 1994. Constructing Social Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.Google Scholar
Ragin, Charles. 2004. “Turning the Tables: How Case-Oriented Research Challenges Variable-Oriented Research.” In Rethinking Social Inquiry, eds. Brady, H. and Collier, D.. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 123–38.Google Scholar
Ramseyer, Mark, and Rosenbluth, Frances. 1998. The Politics of Oligarchy: Institutional Choice in Imperial Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rimlinger, G.V. 1989. “Labour and the State on the Continent, 1800–1939.” In The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, eds. Mathias, P. and Pollard, S.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 549–606.Google Scholar
Rodden, Jonathan. 2007. “Back to the Future: Endogeneous Institutions and Comparative Politics.” In Comparative Politics: Rationality, Culture, and Structure, eds. Lichbach, M. and Zuckerman, A.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 333–57.Google Scholar
Rogowski, Ronald. 1987. “Trade and the Variety of Democratic Institutions.” International Organization 41: 203–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogowski, Ronald, and Kayser, Mark Andreas. 2002. “Majoritarian Electoral Systems and Consumer Power: Price-Level Evidence from the OECD Countries.” American Journal of Political Science 46 (3): 526–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogowski, Ronald, and MacRae, Duncan C.. 2004. “Inequality and Institutions: What Theory, History, and (Some) Data Tell Us.” Presented at American Political Science Association Conference, Chicago.Google Scholar
Rojahn, Jurgen. 1990. “Poland.” In The Formation of Labour Movements 1870–1914, eds. Van der Linden, M. and Rojahn, J.. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 487–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rokkan, Stein, Flora, Peter, Kuhnle, Stein, and Urwin, Derek, eds. 1999. State Formation, Nation Building and Mass Politics in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rustow, Dankwart. 1955. The Politics of Compromise: A Study of Parties and Cabinet Government in Sweden. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rydon, Joan. [1956] 1968. “Electoral Methods and the Australian Party System, 1910–1951.” In Readings in Australian Government, ed. Hughes, C. A.. Queensland: Queensland Press, 175–92.Google Scholar
Sarlvik, Bo. 2002. “Party and Electoral System in Sweden.” In The Evolution of Electoral and Party Systems in the Nordic Countries, eds. Grofman, B. and Lijphart, A.. New York: Agathon Press, 225–69.Google Scholar
Schanbacher, Eberhard. 1982. Parliamentarische Wahlen und Wahlsystem in der Weimarer Republik. Düsseldorf: Droste Verlag.Google Scholar
Scheve, Kenneth, and Stasavage, David. 2009. “Institutions, Partisanship and Inequality in the Long Run.” World Politics 61 (2): 215–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seliger, Maren, and Ucakar, Karl. 1984. Wahlrecht un Wahlerverhalten in Wien 1848–1832. Wien: Jugend und Volk.Google Scholar
Sewell, William. 1996. “Three Temporalities: Toward an Eventful Sociology.” In The Historic Turn in the Human Sciences, ed. McDonald, Terrence J.. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 245–80.Google Scholar
Sharp, Walter R. 1928. “The New French Electoral Law and the Elections of 1928.” American Political Science Review 22 (3): 684–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shvetsova, Olga. 2002. “Institutions and Coalition Building in Post-Communist Transitions.” In The Architecture of Democracy, ed. Reynolds, A.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 55–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steed, Michael. 1975. “The Evolution of the British Electoral System.” In Adversary Politics and Electoral Reform, eds. Finer, S.E.. London, : Wigram, 35–54.Google Scholar
Stengers, Jean. 2004. “Histoire de la Legislation Electorale en Belgique.” Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire 82 (1): 247–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephens, John. 1979. The Transition from Capitalism to Socialism. London: Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuart, Graham H. 1920. “Electoral Reform in France and the Elections of 1919.” American Political Science Review 14 (1): 123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swenson, Peter. 2002. Capitalists against Markets: The Making of Labor Markets and Welfare States in the United States and Sweden. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Symes, D.G. 1963. “Changes in the Structure and Role of Farming in a West Norwegian Island.” Economic Geography 39: 319–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taagepera, Rein. 2002. “Designing Electoral Systems and Waiting for an Electoral System to Evolve.” In The Architecture of Democracy, ed. Reynold, A.. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 248–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taagepera, Rein. 1998. “How Electoral Systems Matter for Democratization.” Democratization 5 (3): 68–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarrow, Sidney. 1995. “Bridging the Quantitative-Qualitative Divide in Political Science.” American Political Science Review 89 (2): 471–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teichova, A. 1985. “Industry.” In The Economic History of Eastern Europe 1919–1975, eds. Kaser, M.C. and Radice, E.A.. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 222–378.Google Scholar
Thelen, Kathleen. 2004. How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States and Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, George. 2005. “The Qualitative Foundations of Political Science Methodology.” Perspectives on Politics 3 (4): 855–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Törnudd, Klaus. 1968. The Electoral System of Finland. London: Hugh Evelyn.Google Scholar
Valen, Henry, and Rokkan, Stein. 1974. “Norway: Conflict Structure and Mass Politics in a European Periphery.” In Electoral Behavior: A Comparative Handbook, ed. Rose, R.. New York: Free Press, 315–70.Google Scholar
Vernby, Kare. 2007. “Strikes Are More Common in Countries with Majoritarian Electoral Systems.” Public Choice 132 (2): 65–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, Norman. 1950. The Canadian House of Commons Representation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Windmuller, John P. 1969. Labor Relations in the Netherlands. Cornell, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Ziblatt, Daniel. 2009. “Shaping Democratic Practice and the Causes of Electoral Fraud: The Case of Nineteenth-Century Germany.” American Political Science Review 103 (1): 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar