Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-qsmjn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-18T18:26:27.277Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Social Sciences, Humanities and Liberal Arts: China and the West

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 January 2018

Liu Kang*
Affiliation:
Institute of Arts and Humanities, ShanghaiJiao Tong University, Shanghai, China Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA. Email: liukang@duke.edu

Abstract

For the most part, modern China’s institutions and modes of knowledge have been shaped and predominantly influenced by the West. Since the modern Chinese knowledge system is an integral and inseparable part of that dominant western system, an immanent critique will view Chinese problems not as extraneous, but as intrinsic to modernity, to the world-system or globalization. This article traces the genealogy of modern European modes of knowledge under the rubrics of ‘liberal arts’, as the origin and basis for modern China’s institutions and modes of knowledge, and then examines China’s ‘liberal arts’ as institution and modes of knowledge from the early years of the twentieth century to the present. The paper’s objective is to question the relationship between (Eurocentric) universalism and Chinese exceptionalism within the dominant modern Western institutions and modes of knowledge today.

Type
Conflicts and Dialogues between Science and Humanities
Copyright
© Academia Europaea 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Notes and References

1. Rees, M. (2011) Martin Rees, I’ve got no religious beliefs at all – interview. The Guardian, 6 April, https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/apr/06/astronomer-royal-martin-rees-interview Google Scholar
3. Ning, Wang (2015) China in the process of globalization highlighting the humanistic spirit in the age of globalization: Humanities education in China. European Review, 23(2), pp 273285.Google Scholar
4. Wallerstein, I. (1997) Eurocentrism and its avatars: The dilemmas of social sciences. New Left Review, I(226), pp 93107. Also see I. Wallerstein (2001) Unthinking Social Science: The Limits of Nineteenth-Century Paradigms (Philadelphia: Temple University Press).Google Scholar
5. Wallerstein, I. (1998) Questioning eurocentrism: A reply to Gregor McLennan. New Left Review, September–October p. 159.Google Scholar
6. Wallerstein, I. (1998) Questioning eurocentrism: A reply to Gregor McLennan. New Left Review, September–October p. 159.Google Scholar
7. For an account of the debate, see,Patton, L. (2015) Methodology of sciences. In: M. Forster and K. Gjesdal, (Eds), Oxford Handbook of Nineteenth Century German Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp. 594–606. Also see I. Wallerstein and R. Lee (2004) Overcoming the Two Cultures: Science vs. the Humanities in the Modern World (New York: Routledge).Google Scholar
8. Howard, See T.A. (2006) Protestant Theology and the Making of the Modern German University (Oxford: Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
9. For a discussion of European medieval university see,Rüegg, W. (1992) Foreword: The university as a European institution. In: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), For a historical account of Chinese education see T.H.C. Lee (2000) Education in Traditional China: A History (Leiden: Brill). For Chinese contributions to science and technology, see the classic study by J. Needham (1954, 1963, 1967, 1971), Science and Civilisation in China, Volumes I, II, III, IV (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).Google Scholar
10. Shipei, Qu (2006) Zhongguo daxue jiaoyu fazhan shi (The History of the Development of University Education in China) (Beijing: Peking University Press), The back cover blurb claims that ‘it is a definitive textbook of education history and a classic work’, the winner of the most prestigious book awards in China. In its first five chapters on Chinese education from legendary Xia-Shang era or prehistoric Bronze Age to the end of the nineteenth century, it uses ‘daxue’ throughout as a generic and umbrella term to refer to educational institutions beyond elementary level in traditional China. By contrast, T.H.C. Lee’s book (see Note 9) has no single mention of traditional Chinese education systems as ‘universities’ before the advent of the western university system in China. For a serious study of the history of Chinese university based on solid research, see R. Hayhoe (1996) China’s Universities, 1895-1995: A Century of Cultural Conflict (New York: Routledge).Google Scholar
11. Wallerstein, I. (1986) Open the social sciences. Items, 40(Spring), p. 2.Google Scholar
12. Wallerstein, I. (1986) Open the social sciences. Items, 40(Spring), p. 3.Google Scholar
13. Kuhn, T. (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).Google Scholar
14. Gadamer, H.-G. (1960) Truth and Method (London: Sheed and Ward).Google Scholar
15. For a discussion of how the Chinese borrowed Japanese wasei-kango, see,Lackner, M.,Amelung, I. andKurtz, J. (Eds) (2001) New Terms for New Ideas: Western Knowledge and Lexical Change in Late Imperial China (Leiden: Brill), as the volume examines the issue of ‘The role of Japanese as an intermediate language in the formation of modern Chinese scientific terminologies.’ For an excellent analysis of how the Japanese used the Chinese to translate Western terms and then how the Chinese borrowed them, see Wang Bingbing (2000) Xiandai hanyu zhong de riyu ‘wailaiyu’ wenti (The problem of Japanese ‘foreign words’ in modern Chinese). In: He Xiongfei (Ed,), Shanghai wenxue suibi jingpin (selected essays from the magazine Shanghai literature) (Beijing: Zhongguo gongshang lianhe chubanshe –Chinese chamber of commerce press), pp. 56–82.Google Scholar
16. Anderlini, J. (2015) Western values forbidden in Chinese universities. Financial Times, 25 January. https://www.ft.com/content/95f3f866-a87e-11e4-bd17-00144feab7de Also see China battles foreign influence in education. The Economist, 26 November 2016. http://www.economist.com/news/china/21710841-middle-class-cant-get-enough-it-china-battles-foreign-influence-education Google Scholar
17. Kimball, B.A. (2010) The Liberal Arts Tradition: A Documentary History (Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America)Google Scholar
18. Bloom, A. (1987) The Closing of the American Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster)Google Scholar
19. Zakaria, F. (2016) In Defense of a Liberal Education (New York: W. W. Norton & Company)Google Scholar
20. Jiang, You Guo (2014) Liberal Arts Education in a Changing Society: A New Perspective on Chinese Higher Education (Leiden: Brill), p. 1.Google Scholar
21. Hayhoe, R. (1996) China’s Universities, 1895-1995: A Century of Cultural Conflict (New York: Routledge), p. 17.Google Scholar
22. Hayhoe, R. (1996) China’s Universities, 1895-1995: A Century of Cultural Conflict (New York: Rutledge), For a discussion of the Western missionaries and Chinese university, see R. Dunch (2002) Reflections on missionary education in modern China. Unpublished paper presented at the Conference of the American Context of China’s Christian Colleges, Wesleyan University, 19–20 September. For a recent study of the western influence on Chinese university education, see Fan Yanyan (2011) Shuangchong qiyuan yu zhidu shengcheng: Zhongguo xiandai daxue zhidu qiyuan yanjiu (Dual Origin and System Formation: A Study of Modern Chinese University System) (Wuhan: Huazhong keji daxue chubanshe – Central China University of Science and Technology Press).Google Scholar
23. Hayhoe, R. (1996) China’s Universities, 1895-1995: A Century of Cultural Conflict (New York: Routledge), p 65.Google Scholar
24. For an account of the central political role Peking University played in modern China prior to the PRC era, see Xia Chaoran (2005) Beijing daxue yu jinxiandai Zhongguo (Peking University and Modern China) (Beijing: Zhonguo shehuikexue chubanshe – China Social Science Publishing House)Google Scholar
25. Hayhoe, R. (1996) China’s Universities, 1895-1995: A Century of Cultural Conflict (New York: Routledge), pp. 71, 77.Google Scholar
26. Hayhoe, R. (1996) China’s Universities, 1895-1995: A Century of Cultural Conflict (New York: Rutledge), p. 82.Google Scholar
27.For a perceptive and balanced analysis of the faculty of Xinan lianda (Southwestern Associated University), see Xie Yong (1995) Xinan lianda zhishifenzi qun de xingcheng yu shuailuo (The formation and decline of the intellectuals of southwestern associated university). Ershiyishiji (The Twenty-first Century ) No. 38 (December), pp. 55–66.Google Scholar
28. Yunlai, Wang (2002) Nanjing daxue bainian shi (A Hundred Year History of Nanjing University) (Najing: Nanjing daxue chubanshe – Nanjing University Press)Google Scholar
29. See Mao’s classic definition of the two armies in his famous 1942 Yanan (Yenan) Talks: Mao Zedong (1967) 1942 talks at the Yenan Forum of Literature and Arts. Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, vol. 3 (Beijing, Foreign Language Press), p. 75.Google Scholar
30. Kang, Liu (2000) Aesthetics and Marxism: Chinese Aesthetic Marxists and Their Western Contemporaries (Durham: Duke University Press), p. 73.Google Scholar
31. Zedong, Mao (1967) Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, vol. 1 (Beijing: Foreign Language Press), p. 308.Google Scholar
32. Shipei, Qu (2006) Zhongguo daxue jiaoyu fazhan shi (The History of the Development of University Education in China) (Beijing: Peking University Press), pp 450451 Also R. Hayhoe (1996) China’s Universities, 1895-1995: A Century of Cultural Conflict (New York: Routledge), p. 112.Google Scholar
33. Ni, Song (2010) Gaoxiao sangshi zizhuquan: 1952 nian yuanxi tiaozheng huimo (University lost autonomy: Reflections of the 1952 university restructuring plan), Wenshi cankao (References of Literature and History), No. 6.Google Scholar
34. Wan, Guofang (2001) The educational reforms in the Cultural Revolution in China: A postmodern critique. Education, 122(1), pp 2132. Also see B. Sautman (1991) Politicization, hyper politicization, and depoliticization of Chinese education. Comparative Education Review, 35(4), pp. 669–687.Google Scholar
35. Bakhtin, M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination, translated by C. Emerson and M. Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press), p. 368.Google Scholar
36. Bakhtin, M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination, translated by C. Emerson and M. Holquist (Austin: University of Texas Press), p. 367.Google Scholar
37. For the figure of 1978 and 1998 respectively, see Chinese Ministry of Education (Ed.) (1979) Zhongguo jiaoyu tongji nianjian 1978 (The Statistical Yearbook of Chinese Education 1978) (Beijing: renmin jiaoyu chubanshe – People’s Education Press), and Chinese Ministry of Education (Ed.) (1999) Zhongguo jiaoyu tongji nianjian 1998 (The Statistical Yearbook of Chinese Education 1978) (Beijing: renmin jiaoyu chubanshe –People’s Education Press). For the figure of 2015, see Yang Dongping (Ed.) (2016) Zhongguo jiaoyu fazhan baogao, 2016 (Report on Chinese Education, 2016) (Beijing: Shehuikexue wenxian chubanshe – Social Science Archives Press).Google Scholar
38. The graph is quoted from Qinghua Wang (2016) The ‘Great Leap Forward’ in Chinese higher education, 1999–2005: An analysis of the contributing factors. Journal of Contemporary China, 25(102), p. 868.Google Scholar
39. Yang, Gan (2006) Zaiban qianyan (Preface). Bashiniandai wenhua yishi (Cultural Consciousness of the Nineteen Eighties), 1–4 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe – Shanghai People’s Press), p. 4.Google Scholar
40.The National Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Science (2016) 2017 niandu guojia sheke jijin xiangmu shenbao gonggao (Announcement of the 2017 National Social Science Foundation major research projects) http://www.npopss-cn.gov.cn/n1/2016/1216/c220863-28956126.html For a recent study of such Chinese national social sciences projects, see H. Holbig (2014) Shifting ideologics of research funding: The CPC’s National Planning Office for Philosophy and Social Sciences. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs: China Aktuell, 43(2), pp. 13–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
41. For a discussion of recent Chinese intellectual trends see Liu Kang (2012) Dinner party of discourse owners’ –China’s intellectual scene today. The Minnesota Review, No. 79, p. 113136.Google Scholar