1 Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, “Founding and Manifesto of Futurism”, in Apollonio, Umbro (ed.), Documents of 20th Century Art: Futurist Manifestos, Viking Press, New York, 1973, pp. 19–24Google Scholar.

2 Sten Rentzhog, Open Air Museums: The History and Future of a Visionary Idea, Kristianstad, Carlssons, 2007. “Open-air museums” are broader than sites of war and catastrophe transformed into museums, but the term expresses the general idea.

3 Landscape after the Battle (Krajobraz po bitwie) is a 1970 film by a Polish film director Andrzei Wajda, depicting the story of a Nazi concentration camp survivor.

4 Luba Jurgenson, “Paysages du désastre”, Revue des Deux Mondes, October 2010; Becker, Annette, “Les musées des catastrophes, exposer guerres et genocides”, in Bechtel, Delphine and Jurgenson, Luba, Muséographie des violences en Europe centrale et ex-URSS, Editions Kimé, Paris, 2016Google Scholar; Werth, Nicolas, La route de la Kolyma, Belin Litterature et Revues, Paris, 2012Google Scholar; “Le paysage après-coup”, symposium organized by Soko Phay in December 2017 at the FRAC Lorraine in Metz, France, in particular regarding Cambodia (proceedings forthcoming); “Does Memory Blend into the Landscape?”, Mémoires en Jeu/Memory at Stake, No. 7, Summer 2018.

5 Halbwachs, Maurice, La topographie légendaire des Evangiles en Terre sainte, PUF, Paris, 2008Google Scholar. This book is the most accomplished of Halbwachs's essays on memory, and unfortunately the least well-known. Also see Becker, Annette, Maurice Halbwachs: Un intellectuel en guerres mondiales, 1914–1945, Agnès Viénot Editions, Paris, 2003Google Scholar.

6 For more information, see “Dossier” section on “Dark Tourism: The Dark Side of the Earth?”, Mémoires en Jeu/Memories at Stake, No. 3, April 2017; Foley, Malcolm and Lennon, J. John, “JFK and Dark Tourism: A Fascination with Assassination”, International Journal of Heritage Studies, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1996CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stone, Philip and Sharpley, Richard, “Consuming Dark Tourism: A Thanatological Perspective”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 35, No. 2, 2008CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Stéphane Michonneau, “Belchite ou l'impossible Dark Tourism de la guerre civile espagnole”, Mémoires en Jeu/Memories at Stake, No. 3, April 2017.

8 Révérien Rurangwa, Génocidé, Presses de la Renaissance, 2006, p. 47 (Review’s translation).

9 Piotr Kosicki citing Victor Erofeev in his contribution on Katyn, in Kenz, David El and Nérard, François Xavier (eds.), Commémorer les victimes en Europe, XVI-XXIème siècles, Champ Vallon, Paris, 2011Google Scholar (Review’s translation).

10 Emmanuelle Danchin, “Le temps des ruines, 1914–1921”, Presses Universitaires de Rennes, Rennes, 2015.

11 Isaiah 56:5. For more information on the importance of Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Center, and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, see Becker, Annette, Messagers du désastre: Raphaël Lemkin, Jan Karski et les genocides, Fayard, Paris, 2018Google Scholar.

12 Gracq, Julien, interview with Tissier, Jean-Louis, Julien Gracq: Oeuvres complètes, Vol. 2, Gallimard, La Pléiade, Paris, 1995, p. 1206Google Scholar.

13 See Pierre Nora (ed.), Les lieux de mémoire, 3 books in 7 vols, Gallimard, Bibliothèque Illustrée des Histoires, Paris, 1984–92.

14 Expression coined by David El Kenz and François Xavier Nérard. See D. El Kenz and F. X. Nérard (eds.), above note 9 (Review’s translation).

15 Interview with Magnifique Neza, April 2014. On file with author.

16 Margalit, Avishai, The Ethics of Memory, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2002Google Scholar.

17 Interview with A. B., April 2014. On file with author.

18 Interview with Martin Musoha, April 1994. On file with author. Musoha survived the genocide at age 14 and later became a member of the National Commission for the Fight against Genocide (Commission Nationale de Lutte contre le Génocide, CNLG), where he was in charge of exhumations.

19 The priest Athanase Seromba was sentenced to life imprisonment for aiding and abetting genocide and extermination as a crime against humanity in 2008 by the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR). See ICTR, The Prosecutor v. Athanase Seromba, Case No. ICTR-2001-66-A, Judgment, 12 March 2008.

20 In September 2018, a huge new memorial was inaugurated by the CNLG in Nyange, next to the rebuilt church. The church is a new step in commemoration, as it completely replaces the original site of suffering. On the new church is written in French and Kinyarwanda: “This church replaces the former one which was deliberately destroyed during the genocide perpetrated against the Tutsi in 1994. Their memory will never fade. We will always carry them in our prayers” (Review’s translation).

21 Marceline Loridan-Ivens, Et tu n'es pas revenu, Grasset, Paris, 2015, pp. 48, 59 (Review’s translation). This is the example used by Valérie Rosoux in her excellent chapter “Drames humains et réconciliations: Une mémoire commune est-elle-possible?”, in Becker, Annette and Tison, Stéphane (eds.), Un siècle de sites funéraires: De l'histoire à la valorisation patrimoniale, Presses de l'Université de Nanterre, Nanterre, 2018Google Scholar.

22 Élise Rida Musomandera, Le livre d’Élise, Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 2014, pp. 82–83 (Review’s translation).

23 Colls, Caroline Sturdy, “Holocaust Archaeology: Archaeological Approaches to Landscapes of Nazi Genocide and Persecution”, Journal of Conflict Archaeology, Vol. 7, No. 2, 2012Google Scholar.

24 Dozens of Australians killed at the 1916 Battle of Fromelles were identified by comparing their DNA with that of their descendants. They were reburied in marked graves in a military cemetery. See Bruce Scates, Annette Becker and Lucy Noakes, Afterlives of War: Grief, Incarceration, Memorialisation and Repatriation, research project on Fromelles, National Committee investigating the missing of Fromelles and Australian National University, Canberra.

25 At site museums, especially but not only in the United States, re-enactments or reconstructions are common, with guides in period costumes. Although these guides are sometimes costumed actors, many of them are passionate about the history, which they know from archives. This is the case for the Napoleonic War, the American Civil War and even the Second World War in Poland, where there is still widespread Holocaust denial. This is not necessary in Rwanda, where guides and cleaning staff are themselves survivors of the genocide.

26 Of course, anthropological explanations for the genocide can be sought, as Nigel Eltringham does in “Exhibition, dissimulation et ‘culture’: Le traitement des corps dans le génocide des Tutsi du Rwanda”, in Élisabeth Ansett and Jean-Marc Dreyfus, Cadavres impensables, cadavres impensés: Approches méthodologiques du traitement des corps dans les violences de masse et les génocides, Editions Petra, Paris, 2012. During genocides, perpetrators either show or hide their crimes. During the time of memorialization, showing is predominant.

27 Interview with Martin Musoza, April 2014. On file with author.

28 E. Rida Musomandera, above note 22, p. 84 (Review’s translation).

29 Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane, Une initiation, Rwanda, 1994–2016, Seuil, Paris, 2017Google Scholar. Operation Turquoise, conducted by the French military, took place in Rwanda in 1994. While the initial idea was to help the Tutsi, the military realized on the ground that they were mainly helping the perpetrators to escape. See Ancel, Guillaume, Rwanda, la fin du silence: Le témoignage d'un officier français, Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 2018Google Scholar.

30 Lévi-Strauss, Claude, “The Savage Mind”, in Olick, Jeffrey K., Vinitzky-Seroussi, Veredsky and Levy, Daniel (eds), The Collective Memory Reader, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011, p. 175Google Scholar.

31 One example of this is the remarkable audio-visual display recreating the Middle Passage at the International Slavery Museum in Liverpool. In this exhibit, the chained-up bodies at the bottom of a slave ship in a storm can be seen in their awful physical and mental suffering, huge, on three screens that make visitors feel physically and mentally sick.

32 There is a lot to write about the work of the Aegis Trust, but such a discussion is outside of the scope of this paper. For more information, see Aegis Trust, “Our Starting Point”, available at: www.aegistrust.org/what-we-do/our-starting-point/ (all internet references were accessed in March 2019). For further insights, see the work of Rémy Korman on his website, rwanda.hypotheses.org, and in his upcoming thesis, La construction de la mémoire du génocide des Tutsi du Rwanda: Etude des processus de mémorialisation.

33 Aegis Trust, “Activities”, available at: www.aegistrust.org/what-we-do/activities/.

34 The online advertisement for the Kigali memorial states: “The Kigali Genocide Memorial is the best known and most visited memorial site in Rwanda because of its easy accessibility. Tourists arriving at the Kigali International Airport will find the site an easy drive from the airport or from one of the many hotels located in and around Kigali.” See “Kigali Genocide Memorial”, Genocide Archive Rwanda, available at: rga1.lib.utexas.edu/index.php/Kigali_Genocide_Memorial.

35 Matthew Boswell, “Reading Genocide Memorial Sites in Rwanda: Eurocentrism, Sensory Secondary Witnessing and Shame”, Mémoires en Jeu/Memories at Stake, No. 3, April 2017.

36 This is similar to the methods used by the curators and historians at the Buchenwald museum. See Buchenwald and Mittelbau-Dora Memorials Foundation, “Concept and Design”, available at: www.buchenwald.de/en/1455/.

37 Benjamin, Walter, “On Some Motifs in Baudelaire”, in Illuminations, Schocken Books, New York, 2007, p. 186Google Scholar.

38 Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines was a Rwandan radio station which, along with Kangura magazine, played a significant role in the genocide. For more information see Russell Smith, “The Impact of Hate Media in Rwanda”, BBC News, 3 December 2003, available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3257748.stm.

39 Maurice Papon was a French civil servant convicted of aiding and abetting crimes against humanity (responsible for the deportation of Jews between 1942 and 1944). For more information, see Trial International, “Maurice Papon”, available at: https://trialinternational.org/latest-post/maurice-papon/.

40 Extract from the preliminary report: “The sites of Nyamata, Murambi, Bisesero and Gisozi are serial properties including sites of memory that constitute unique and exceptional historical testimonies of the history of humanity. Each site represents the value of the memorial elements that express the unique and exceptional history of Rwanda and the modern world” (Review’s translation). On file with author.

41 Informal conversations between UNESCO officials and the author.

42 See, for example, UNESCO, “La directrice générale de l'UNESCO condamne fermement la destruction du Tétrapyle et les dégâts causés au théâtre de Palmyre, inscrit au patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO”, 20 January 2017, available at: https://fr.unesco.org/news/directrice-generale-unesco-condamne-fermement-destruction-du-tetrapyle-degats-causes-au-theatre. In the case of Mali, the International Criminal Court found Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi, a Tuareg Malian citizen, guilty of the war crime of intentionally directing attacks against buildings dedicated to religion, education, art, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments in the context of the armed conflict in Mali. He was sentenced to nine years of imprisonment in September 2016.

43 Raphael Lemkin papers, Microfilm 2, New York Public Library Archives & Manuscripts, 1950.

44 Becker, Annette, Messagers du désastre: Raphaël Lemkin, Jan Karski et les génocides, Fayard, Paris, 2018Google Scholar.

45 See Esther Mujawayo and Souad Belhaddad, SurVivantes, Editions de l'Aube, La Tour-d'Aigues, 2011.

46 Hatzfeld, Jean, La stratégie des Antilopes, Seuil, Paris, 2007, p. 3Google Scholar.

47 Joséphine Kampiré quoted in Dumas, Hélène, Le génocide au village: Le massacre des Tutsi du Rwanda, Seuil, Paris, 2014, pp. 277, 290CrossRefGoogle Scholar (Review’s translation). See also Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane, Une initiation, Seuil, Paris, 2017Google Scholar.

48 E. Rida Musomandera, above note 22, p. 72 (Review’s translation).

49 Aaron, Soazig, Le non de Klara, Pocket, Paris, 2004Google Scholar, passim.

50 “Rwanda's Ghosts Refuse to Be Buried”, BBC News, 8 April 2009, available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7981964.stm.