¹ The primary sources of evidence for this study include archival documents about the operations of the Women's College Coalition; reports published by the Coalition; newspaper articles about the Coalition; an interview with Sharp, Marcia K., executive director of the Coalition for its first two decades, from 1973 to 1993; and an interview with Jill Ker Conway, former Smith College president and a member of the Coalition's executive board from 1976 to 1985.Google Scholar

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⁶ Another example of cooperative collaboration can be found in 1978 formation of the Neylan Commission, an organization of colleges founded by women religious. See Brown, Dorothy M. and Green, Carol Hurd, “Making It: Stories of Persistence and Success,” in Catholic Women's College in America, ed. Schier, Tracy and Russett, Cynthia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002), 235–76. Linda Eisenmann has pointed out the usefulness of networking as an interpretive framework for understanding women's educational history. See Eisenmann, Linda, “Creating a Framework for Interpreting US Women's Educational History: Lessons from Historical Lexicography,” History of Education 30, no. 5 (2001). On women's use of networks and coalitions, also see Helen S. Astin and Carole Leland, Women of Influence, Women of Vision: A Cross-Generational Study of Leaders and Social Change (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991); Chamberlain, Mariam K., Women in Academe: Progress and Prospects (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1988); Rossi, Alice S. and Calderwood, Ann, Academic Women on the Move (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1973); Levine, Susan, Degrees of Equality: The American Association of University Women and the Challenge of Twentieth Century Feminism (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1995).Google Scholar

⁷ During the 1970s, appointing a woman to the top post of a women's college became symbolic of institutional commitment to women's leadership abilities. Women presided at 60 percent of the 117 women's colleges in 1978 but served at only 7 percent at the nation's 2,500 coeducational institutions. Bernie Harrison, “A Unique Moment in History, and a Delight: Seven Women Finally Head the Seven Sisters,” The Washington Star Portfolio, October 8, 1978; “Seven Sisters, Seven Presidents,” Boston Sunday Globe, March 26, 1978; Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, Opportunities for Women in Higher Education: Their Current Participation, Prospects for the Future, and Recommendations for Action (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973), 196; Stromquist, Nelly P., “Sex-Equity in Education: The State as Promoter of Women's Rights,” Review of Educational Research 63 (Winter 1993), 379–407.Google Scholar

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¹¹ Tidball, et al., ed., Taking Women Seriously, 24–28; Women's College Coalition, Profile II: A Second Profile of Women's Colleges (Washington, DC: Women's College Coalition, 1981), 3.Google Scholar

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¹⁵ For a discussion of the varied responses of men's and women's colleges to the pressures to become coeducational in the late 1960s and early 1970s, see Duffy, Elizabeth A. and Goldberg, Idana, Crafting a Class: College Admissions and Financial Aid, 1955–1994 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).Google Scholar

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¹⁷ Levine, , Degrees of Equality, 5. It is difficult to say exactly when or how the women's movement of the late 1960s and 1970s began. Recent revisionist historical interpretations of feminism between 1920 and 1960 demonstrate the vitality of feminist thought and activity during these decades, despite their traditional periodization as through years of inactivity between the Woman Suffrage movement of the 1910s and the highly visible Women's Liberation activities of the 1960s. Although the decades between 1920 and 1960 were devoid of large, recognizable social movements on behalf of women, they served as the foundation for the public resurgence of feminist action that erupted at the close of the 1960s. Representative revisionist works include Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945–1960 (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1994); Hartmann, Susan M., “Women's Employment and the Domestic Ideal in the Early Cold War Years,” in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945–1960, ed. Meyerowitz, Joanne J. (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1994), 84–100; Rupp, Leila J. and Taylor, Verta A., Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women's Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s (New York: Oxford Press, 1987); Hartmann, Susan M., The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s (Boston, MA: Twayne, 1982).Google Scholar

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³⁰ Gallese, Liz Roman, “The Women's Colleges Have Bounced Back, Changing Emphasis,” Wall Street Journal, November 14, 1974; Hechinger, Fred M., “Women's Colleges Show New Strength,” The New York Times, 28, April 1981; Ingalls, “Women's Colleges Show Renewed Vigor”; Conway, John, “Futures Look Bright for Women's Colleges,” Greensboro News & Record, July 30, 1984; Conway, John, “Women's Colleges Flourishing, While Male Schools Dwindle,” Greensboro New & Record, July 30, 1984.Google Scholar

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³³ The Women's College Coalition had a total annual budget in 1975 of just $28,000; that amount increased to a mere $33,000 in 1979. During the WCC's first years, the organization's director, Marcia Sharp, reported working more hours than the number specified in her contract. Sharp was partner in the small, women-owned firm Hager Sharp that the Association of American Colleges contracted to direct the Coalition's activities. Memorandum from Libby Scott to Conway, Jill K., February 13, 1979, Series XIV, Office of the President, Jill Ker Conway Files, SCA; Marcia K. Sharp to Samuel H. Magill, January 9, 1976, Series XIV, Office of the President, Jill Ker Conway Files, SCA.Google Scholar

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³⁹ For more on Conway as a fundraiser, see Thomas, Auden D., “From Vision to Action: Jill Conway at Smith College” (doctoral diss., Indiana University Bloomington, 2004).Google Scholar

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⁴⁷ Women's College Coalition, A Profile of Women's College Presidents: Summary Report (Washington, DC: Women's College Coalition, 1982), 14–15. For a discussion of foundation support for women's collegiate education during the 1950s and 1960s, see Eisenmann, Linda, “Brokering Old and New Philanthropic Traditions: Women's Continuing Education in the Cold War Era,” in Women and Philanthropy in Education, ed. Andrea Walton (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2005), 148–66.Google Scholar

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⁵² Marcia K. Sharp to Jill K. Conway, February 3, 1977, Series XIV, Office of the President, Jill Ker Conway Files, SCA; Foundations Approached by the Coalition, August 1977, Series XIV, Office of the President, Jill Ker Conway Files, SCA.Google Scholar

⁵³ Sharp, Marcia K., Interview by the Author, March 5, 2002.Google Scholar

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⁵⁶ Brown and Hurd Green, “Making It: Stories of Persistence and Success.”Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Memorandum from Jill K. Conway to Nancy Lange, June 23, 1980, Series V, Office of the President, Jill Ker Conway Files, SCA. Smith College development director John Detmold noted that Smith raised more money during the first five years of Conway's administration than “any other of the 548 colleges, single-sex and coed” included in the Council for Aid to Education survey. Wellesley College, led by Barbara Newell, had the next best record. Detmold, John H., “The Distinguished Record of Women in Fund Raising,” in Handbook for Educational Fund Raising: A Guide to Successful Principles and Practices for Colleges, Universities, and Schools, ed. Pray, Francis C. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1981), 154–57.Google Scholar

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⁵⁹ Rhoda Dorsey to Women's College Coalition member presidents, February 13, 1979, Marina S. Horner Papers, Radcliffe Archives.Google Scholar

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⁶⁴ Sharp, Marcia K., Interview by the Author, March 5, 2002.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Memorandum from Marcia Sharp to Rhoda Dorsey, February 24, 1978, Series XIV, Office of the President, Jill Ker Conway Files, SCA.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Levine, , Degrees of Equality, 173.Google Scholar

⁶⁷ See Astin and Leland, Women of Influence, Women of Vision, 25.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Marcia K. Sharp to Women's College Coalition Executive Committee, March 14, 1978, Mary Patterson McPherson Papers, Bryn Mawr College Archives.Google Scholar

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⁷⁰ Rhoda Dorsey to Mary McPherson, August 29, 1978, Mary Patterson McPherson Papers, Bryn Mawr College Archives.Google Scholar

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⁷⁵ Women's College Coalition, A Profile of Women's College Presidents, 3.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Jeni Hart coined the term “prestige network” to describe the “establishing relationships, or networks, with individuals or groups who are considered elite, prestigious, and influential” as an organizational strategy used for the purpose of enhancing the legitimacy of an organization. <Jeni Hart, “Creating Networks as an Activist Strategy: Different Approaches among Academic Feminist Organizations” (paper presented at the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Portland, OR, November <2003).Google Scholar

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⁸¹ See Edelman, Murray, Constructing the Political Spectacle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988). My thanks to Marybeth Gasman for pointing out the connection between Edelman's concept and the WCC's media efforts.Google Scholar

⁸² See Gasman, Marybeth, “Rhetoric Vs. Reality: The Fundraising Messages of the United Negro College Fund in the Immediate Aftermath of the Brown Decision.” History of Education Quarterly 44, no. 1 (2004), 70–94.Google Scholar

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⁹¹ Some of the more prominent studies of the experiences of women at women's colleges are based on UCLA's Cooperative Institutional Research Program Freshman Survey and College Student Survey. The most recent large-scale study available is based on the National Survey of Student Engagement. See Jillian Kinzie et al., “Women Students at Coeducational and Women's Colleges: How Do Their Experiences Compare?,” Journal of College Student Development (in press).Google Scholar

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⁹⁴ Other examples of coalition-building include the formation of the broad-based National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966, the Women's Equity Action League in 1968, and the National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education 1975. Coalitions successfully promoted Tide IX of the Educational Amendments in 1972 and the Women's Educational Equity Act in 1974. Coalitions of professional academics included the AAUW, Committee W of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP), and an array of discipline-oriented scholarly groups of women who organized in the fields of economics, psychology, political science, and sociology. See Rosen, Ruth, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000), 78, 83; Chamberlain, Women in Academe, 275–88; Levine, , Degrees of Equality, 165; Klotzburger, Kay, “Political Action by Academic Women,” in Academic Women on the Move, ed. Rossi, Alice S. and Ann Calderwood (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1973), 359–92.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Other points of collective action by women's college presidents included the Neylan Commission, formed in 1983 by Catholic educators, and the Seven College Conference, which had long served as a mechanism for cooperative efforts between the prestigious northeastern women's colleges. Jackson, Mary Lou, “Leadership in Catholic Institutions,” in Women in Higher Education: An Encyclopedia, ed. A.M.M. Aleman and Kristen Renn (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2002), 489; Pearson, Carol, Touchton, Judith G., and Shavlik, Donna L., Educating the Majority: Women Challenge Tradition in Higher Education (New York: American Council on Education, Macmillan, 1989), 181.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Bollag, Burton, “Making an Art Form of Assessment: A Small Women's College Has Become a Model for Determining What Students Have Learned,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, October 27, 2006. Kuh, George D. et al., Student Success in College: Creating Conditions That Matter (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2005); Ingalls, “Women's Colleges Show Renewed Vigor”; Brown and Hurd Green, “Making It: Stories of Persistence and Success.”Google Scholar

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