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“Safariland”: Tourism, Development and the Marketing of Kenya in the Post-Colonial World

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 May 2018

Abstract:

This article explores the role of tourism in the development plans of Kenya during the 1960s and 1970s, examining what this reveals about the new opportunities and constrictions that officials encountered as they tried to globally reconfigure the place of their new decolonizing nation in the post-colonial world. These themes are explored by examining the political economy of development and tourism, the marketing infrastructures that Kenyan officials created to shape how Western consumers thought about “Kenya,” and how these factors influenced the kinds of discourses that were promoted globally about this newly-independent African country.

Résumé:

Cet article explore le rôle du tourisme dans les plans de développement du Kenya au cours des années 1960 et 1970, et examine ce que cela révèle sur les nouvelles possibilités et restrictions rencontrés par les officiels alors qu’ils tentaient de reconfigurer globalement la place de leur nouvelle nation décolonisée dans le monde postcolonial. Ces thèmes sont explorés par le biais d’un examen de l’économie politique du développement du tourisme, des infrastructures de commercialisation créées par les fonctionnaires kényans pour façonner l’impression occidentale du « Kenya », et comment ces facteurs ont influencé les types de discours qui ont été promu à l’échelle mondiale au sujet de ce pays d’Afrique nouvellement indépendants.

Type
Forum on Post-Colonial and Contemporary Kenya dedicated to Elliot Fratkin and Richard Waller
Copyright
Copyright © African Studies Association 2018 

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References

References

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KNA/KL/11/2. 1976. Letter from John A.M. Maliti to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, 8 March.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/2. 1976. Revised Work Program, March-June, 1976.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/11/2. 1977. Letter from the Kenya Tourist Office, Los Angeles to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, Nairobi, 15 July.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/2. 1978. Work Program, January – June, 1978.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 31 1970. Report for the period ending 31 August, 1970.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Letter from Permanent Secretary P.M. Mullei to Kenya Tourist Officer P.K.Muiruri. 22 February.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Estimates, 1971.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1972. Report: January-March, 1972.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1970. Report: August, 1970.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Report: January/March, 1971.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1970. Quarterly Report from September to December, 1970.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Letter from P.M. Mullei to P.K. Muiruri. 22 February.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/8. 1973. Mwangemi, C.M. “Tourism activity of the Last Year.”Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/8. 1974. Report for 1973, 1974, Paris Office.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/8. 1975. Quarterly Report, 1975, Paris.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. Meadows, K. Report on Royal Agricultural Pavilion.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. Muriuki, P.K. Report on the Kenya Pavilion – Royal Show England 1969.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. The Agricultural Society of Kenya: Minutes, 19 May.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. Invoice from “Treasures and Crafts Limited,” Nairobi Kenya, 29 May.Google Scholar
1976. Kenya: Agents’ Sale Manual, 1976. Nairobi.Google Scholar
Makonnen, T. R., Mutemi, T. R., , D. N. and Ogala, P. N.. 1972. “Familiarization Tour (18-4-72 to 26-4-72).”Google Scholar
1965. Sessional Paper no. 10.Google Scholar
1969. “Development of Tourism in Kenya,” Sessional Paper No. 8. Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
n.d., c. early 1970s. Kenyatta Conference Center, Nairobi, Kenya (brochure).Google Scholar
n.d., c. early 1970s. Nairobi Handbook.Google Scholar
Shako, J. L. M. “Welcome to Kenya.” In Kenya: Hotel Guide Kenya. Nairobi, 1971.Google Scholar
KV/2/1787. 1930-40. “Jomo Kenyatta, alias Johnstone Kenyatta: Kenyan.” Records of the Security Service.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 1963. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 1964. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 1966–8. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 2001. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 2011. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 2014–16. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2017, Kenya. 2017. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.Google Scholar
Dowdy, Earl. 1972a. “Africa isn’t what it used to be,” Detroit Free Press, June 18, 1972.Google Scholar
Earl Dowdy, Earl. 1972b. “On Hemingway’s Trail: Is this How “Papa” became a Great Writer?” Detroit Free Press, c. June 1972.Google Scholar
Masese, Winsley. 2014. “Tourism on its Knees as Thousands of Jobs Lost,” Standard, May 11.Google Scholar
Meredith, Jack. 1974a. “Picture Window of Africa,” Windsor Star February 9, 1974.Google Scholar
Meredith, Jack. 1974b. “Saw One Snake and that was Enough.” Windsor Star. February 16, 1974.Google Scholar
Okoth, Edwin. 2015. “Uhuru Lauds Milan Expo, Tourism Set to Win Big,” Daily Nation, September 15.Google Scholar
Ringa, Mathias. 2015. “Slow Start to Tourist Season at the Coast,” Daily Nation, July 13.Google Scholar
Hemingway, Ernest. 1966. Green Hills of Africa. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Hemingway, Ernest. 2003. The Snows of Kilimanjaro and Other Stories. New York: Scribner.Google Scholar
Akama, John S. 2002. “The Role of Government in the Development of Tourism in Kenya.” International Journal of Tourism Research 4.9 (1): 114.Google Scholar
Akama, John S., and Kieti, Damiannah. 2009. “Tourism and Socio-economic Development in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Mombasa Resort in Kenya.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 15 (6): 735–48.Google Scholar
Azarya, Victor. 2004. “Globalization and International Tourism in Developing Countries: Marginality as Commercial Commodity.” Current Sociology 52 (6): 949–67.Google Scholar
Babou, Cheikh Anta. 2007. Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal, 1853–1913. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Beckerson, John. 2002. “Marketing British Tourism: Government Approaches to the Stimulation of a Service Sector, 1880–1950.” In Korte, B., Harvie, C., Schneider, R., and Berghoff, H., eds. The Making of Modern Tourism: The Cultural History of the British Experience. New York: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Branch, Daniel. 2011. Kenya: Between Hope and Despair, 1963–2011. New Haven: Yale.Google Scholar
Chambers, Erve. 2010. Native Tours: The Anthropology of Travel and Tourism. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2001. “What is the Concept of Globalization Good For? An African Historian’s Perspective,” African Affairs 100: 189213.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2005. Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History. Berkeley: University of California.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2008. “Possibility and Constraint: African Independence in Historical Perspective,” Journal of African History 49: 167–96.Google Scholar
Feifer, Maxine. 1986. Tourism in History: From Imperial Rome to the Present. New York: Stein and Day.Google Scholar
Ferguson, James. 2007. Global Shadows: Africa and the Neo-Liberal World Order. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Fletcher, John and Morakabati, Yeganeh. 2008. “Tourism Activity, Terrorism and Political Instability within the Commonwealth: The Cases of Fiji and Kenya.” International Journal of Tourism Research 10: 537–56.Google Scholar
Gardner, Benjamin. 2016. Selling the Serengeti: The Cultural Politics of Safari Tourism. Athens: Georgia University Press.Google Scholar
Glassman, Jonathon. 2004. “Slower than a Massacre: The Multiple Sources of Racial thought in Colonial Zanzibar.” American Historical Review 109: 720–54.Google Scholar
Glassman, Jonathon. 2011. War of Words, War of Stones: Racial Violence in Colonial Zanzibar. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Hornsby, Charles. 2012. Kenya: A History since Independence. London: I.B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Nancy. 2006. “The Intimate Politics of Ornithology in Colonial Africa.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 48: 564603.Google Scholar
Keshodkar, Akbar. 2013. Tourism and Social Change: Struggles for Identity, Movement and Civilization in Post-socialist Zanzibar. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Kibicho, Wanjohi. 2009. Sex Tourism in Africa: Kenya’s Booming Industry. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Korte, B., Harvie, C., Schneider, R., and Berghoff, H., eds. 2002. The Making of Modern Tourism: The Cultural History of the British Experience. New York: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Makonnen, Ras. 1973. Pan-Africanism from Within. King, Kenneth, ed. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Miller, Christopher L. 1986. Blank Darkness: Africanist Discourse in French. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mudimbe, V. Y. 1988. The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy and the Order of Knowledge. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Mudimbe, V. Y. 1994. The Idea of Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Norton, Norton. 1996. “Experiencing Nature: The Reproduction of Environmental Discourse through Safari Tourism in East Africa.” Geoforum 27: 355–73.Google Scholar
Ochieng’, William. 1993. “Structural and Political Change.” In Ogot, B. A. and Ochieng’, William, eds. Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940–1993. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Ogot, B. A. and Ochieng’, William, eds. 1993. Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940–1993. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Ouma, Joseph P. B. M. 1970. Evolution of Tourism in East Africa, 1900–2000. Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau.Google Scholar
Prestholdt, Jeremy. 2004. “On the Global Repercussions of East African Consumerism,” American Historical Review 109: 755–81.Google Scholar
Robinson, David. 2000. Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Said, Edward. 1979. Orientalism , New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Said, Edward. 1994. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Sindiga, Isaac. 2000. “Tourism Development in Kenya.” In The Political Economy of Tourism Development in Africa, (ed) Dieke, Peter U. C.. Putnam Valley, NY: Cognizant Communication.Google Scholar
Simmons, Trevor. 2015. “Selling the African Wilds: A History of the Safari Tourism Industry in East Africa, 1900–1939,” PhD Dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Steinhart, Edward. 2006. Black Poachers, White Hunters: A Social History of Hunting in Colonial Kenya. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Summary, Rebecca Moeller. 1983. “The role of tourism in the economic growth and development of Kenya and Barbados,” PhD Dissertation. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Werner, Micahel and Zimmermann, Bénédicte. 2006. “Beyond Comparison: Histoire Croisée and the Challenge of Reflexivity.” History and Theory 45: 2050.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zuelow, Eric G. E. 2015. A History of Modern Tourism. New York: Palgrave.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/11/2. 1976. Letter from John A.M. Maliti to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, 6 February.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/11/2. 1976. Letter from John A.M. Maliti to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, 8 March.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/2. 1976. Revised Work Program, March-June, 1976.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/11/2. 1977. Letter from the Kenya Tourist Office, Los Angeles to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, Nairobi, 15 July.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/2. 1978. Work Program, January – June, 1978.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 31 1970. Report for the period ending 31 August, 1970.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Letter from Permanent Secretary P.M. Mullei to Kenya Tourist Officer P.K.Muiruri. 22 February.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Estimates, 1971.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1972. Report: January-March, 1972.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1970. Report: August, 1970.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Report: January/March, 1971.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1970. Quarterly Report from September to December, 1970.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Letter from P.M. Mullei to P.K. Muiruri. 22 February.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/8. 1973. Mwangemi, C.M. “Tourism activity of the Last Year.”Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/8. 1974. Report for 1973, 1974, Paris Office.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/8. 1975. Quarterly Report, 1975, Paris.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. Meadows, K. Report on Royal Agricultural Pavilion.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. Muriuki, P.K. Report on the Kenya Pavilion – Royal Show England 1969.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. The Agricultural Society of Kenya: Minutes, 19 May.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. Invoice from “Treasures and Crafts Limited,” Nairobi Kenya, 29 May.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/11/2. 1976. Letter from John A.M. Maliti to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, 6 February.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/11/2. 1976. Letter from John A.M. Maliti to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, 8 March.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/2. 1976. Revised Work Program, March-June, 1976.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/11/2. 1977. Letter from the Kenya Tourist Office, Los Angeles to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, Nairobi, 15 July.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/2. 1978. Work Program, January – June, 1978.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 31 1970. Report for the period ending 31 August, 1970.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Letter from Permanent Secretary P.M. Mullei to Kenya Tourist Officer P.K.Muiruri. 22 February.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Estimates, 1971.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1972. Report: January-March, 1972.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1970. Report: August, 1970.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Report: January/March, 1971.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1970. Quarterly Report from September to December, 1970.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/4. 1971. Letter from P.M. Mullei to P.K. Muiruri. 22 February.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/8. 1973. Mwangemi, C.M. “Tourism activity of the Last Year.”Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/8. 1974. Report for 1973, 1974, Paris Office.Google Scholar
KNA/ KL/11/8. 1975. Quarterly Report, 1975, Paris.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. Meadows, K. Report on Royal Agricultural Pavilion.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. Muriuki, P.K. Report on the Kenya Pavilion – Royal Show England 1969.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. The Agricultural Society of Kenya: Minutes, 19 May.Google Scholar
KNA/KL/25/6. 1969. Invoice from “Treasures and Crafts Limited,” Nairobi Kenya, 29 May.Google Scholar
1976. Kenya: Agents’ Sale Manual, 1976. Nairobi.Google Scholar
Makonnen, T. R., Mutemi, T. R., , D. N. and Ogala, P. N.. 1972. “Familiarization Tour (18-4-72 to 26-4-72).”Google Scholar
1965. Sessional Paper no. 10.Google Scholar
1969. “Development of Tourism in Kenya,” Sessional Paper No. 8. Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
n.d., c. early 1970s. Kenyatta Conference Center, Nairobi, Kenya (brochure).Google Scholar
n.d., c. early 1970s. Nairobi Handbook.Google Scholar
Shako, J. L. M. “Welcome to Kenya.” In Kenya: Hotel Guide Kenya. Nairobi, 1971.Google Scholar
KV/2/1787. 1930-40. “Jomo Kenyatta, alias Johnstone Kenyatta: Kenyan.” Records of the Security Service.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 1963. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 1964. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 1966–8. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 2001. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 2011. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Economic Survey. 2014–16. Nairobi: Republic of Kenya.Google Scholar
Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2017, Kenya. 2017. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.Google Scholar
Dowdy, Earl. 1972a. “Africa isn’t what it used to be,” Detroit Free Press, June 18, 1972.Google Scholar
Earl Dowdy, Earl. 1972b. “On Hemingway’s Trail: Is this How “Papa” became a Great Writer?” Detroit Free Press, c. June 1972.Google Scholar
Masese, Winsley. 2014. “Tourism on its Knees as Thousands of Jobs Lost,” Standard, May 11.Google Scholar
Meredith, Jack. 1974a. “Picture Window of Africa,” Windsor Star February 9, 1974.Google Scholar
Meredith, Jack. 1974b. “Saw One Snake and that was Enough.” Windsor Star. February 16, 1974.Google Scholar
Okoth, Edwin. 2015. “Uhuru Lauds Milan Expo, Tourism Set to Win Big,” Daily Nation, September 15.Google Scholar
Ringa, Mathias. 2015. “Slow Start to Tourist Season at the Coast,” Daily Nation, July 13.Google Scholar
Hemingway, Ernest. 1966. Green Hills of Africa. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Hemingway, Ernest. 2003. The Snows of Kilimanjaro and Other Stories. New York: Scribner.Google Scholar
Akama, John S. 2002. “The Role of Government in the Development of Tourism in Kenya.” International Journal of Tourism Research 4.9 (1): 114.Google Scholar
Akama, John S., and Kieti, Damiannah. 2009. “Tourism and Socio-economic Development in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Mombasa Resort in Kenya.” Journal of Sustainable Tourism 15 (6): 735–48.Google Scholar
Azarya, Victor. 2004. “Globalization and International Tourism in Developing Countries: Marginality as Commercial Commodity.” Current Sociology 52 (6): 949–67.Google Scholar
Babou, Cheikh Anta. 2007. Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal, 1853–1913. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Beckerson, John. 2002. “Marketing British Tourism: Government Approaches to the Stimulation of a Service Sector, 1880–1950.” In Korte, B., Harvie, C., Schneider, R., and Berghoff, H., eds. The Making of Modern Tourism: The Cultural History of the British Experience. New York: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Branch, Daniel. 2011. Kenya: Between Hope and Despair, 1963–2011. New Haven: Yale.Google Scholar
Chambers, Erve. 2010. Native Tours: The Anthropology of Travel and Tourism. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2001. “What is the Concept of Globalization Good For? An African Historian’s Perspective,” African Affairs 100: 189213.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2005. Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History. Berkeley: University of California.Google Scholar
Cooper, Frederick. 2008. “Possibility and Constraint: African Independence in Historical Perspective,” Journal of African History 49: 167–96.Google Scholar
Feifer, Maxine. 1986. Tourism in History: From Imperial Rome to the Present. New York: Stein and Day.Google Scholar
Ferguson, James. 2007. Global Shadows: Africa and the Neo-Liberal World Order. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Fletcher, John and Morakabati, Yeganeh. 2008. “Tourism Activity, Terrorism and Political Instability within the Commonwealth: The Cases of Fiji and Kenya.” International Journal of Tourism Research 10: 537–56.Google Scholar
Gardner, Benjamin. 2016. Selling the Serengeti: The Cultural Politics of Safari Tourism. Athens: Georgia University Press.Google Scholar
Glassman, Jonathon. 2004. “Slower than a Massacre: The Multiple Sources of Racial thought in Colonial Zanzibar.” American Historical Review 109: 720–54.Google Scholar
Glassman, Jonathon. 2011. War of Words, War of Stones: Racial Violence in Colonial Zanzibar. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Hornsby, Charles. 2012. Kenya: A History since Independence. London: I.B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Nancy. 2006. “The Intimate Politics of Ornithology in Colonial Africa.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 48: 564603.Google Scholar
Keshodkar, Akbar. 2013. Tourism and Social Change: Struggles for Identity, Movement and Civilization in Post-socialist Zanzibar. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Kibicho, Wanjohi. 2009. Sex Tourism in Africa: Kenya’s Booming Industry. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Korte, B., Harvie, C., Schneider, R., and Berghoff, H., eds. 2002. The Making of Modern Tourism: The Cultural History of the British Experience. New York: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Makonnen, Ras. 1973. Pan-Africanism from Within. King, Kenneth, ed. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Miller, Christopher L. 1986. Blank Darkness: Africanist Discourse in French. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mudimbe, V. Y. 1988. The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy and the Order of Knowledge. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Mudimbe, V. Y. 1994. The Idea of Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Norton, Norton. 1996. “Experiencing Nature: The Reproduction of Environmental Discourse through Safari Tourism in East Africa.” Geoforum 27: 355–73.Google Scholar
Ochieng’, William. 1993. “Structural and Political Change.” In Ogot, B. A. and Ochieng’, William, eds. Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940–1993. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Ogot, B. A. and Ochieng’, William, eds. 1993. Decolonization and Independence in Kenya, 1940–1993. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Ouma, Joseph P. B. M. 1970. Evolution of Tourism in East Africa, 1900–2000. Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau.Google Scholar
Prestholdt, Jeremy. 2004. “On the Global Repercussions of East African Consumerism,” American Historical Review 109: 755–81.Google Scholar
Robinson, David. 2000. Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Said, Edward. 1979. Orientalism , New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Said, Edward. 1994. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Sindiga, Isaac. 2000. “Tourism Development in Kenya.” In The Political Economy of Tourism Development in Africa, (ed) Dieke, Peter U. C.. Putnam Valley, NY: Cognizant Communication.Google Scholar
Simmons, Trevor. 2015. “Selling the African Wilds: A History of the Safari Tourism Industry in East Africa, 1900–1939,” PhD Dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar
Steinhart, Edward. 2006. Black Poachers, White Hunters: A Social History of Hunting in Colonial Kenya. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Summary, Rebecca Moeller. 1983. “The role of tourism in the economic growth and development of Kenya and Barbados,” PhD Dissertation. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.Google Scholar
Werner, Micahel and Zimmermann, Bénédicte. 2006. “Beyond Comparison: Histoire Croisée and the Challenge of Reflexivity.” History and Theory 45: 2050.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zuelow, Eric G. E. 2015. A History of Modern Tourism. New York: Palgrave.Google Scholar