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INFRASTRUCTURE, ETHNICITY, AND POLITICAL MOBILIZATION IN NAMIBIA, 1946–87

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 March 2020

STEPHANIE QUINN Open the ORCID record for STEPHANIE QUINN [Opens in a new window]
STEPHANIE QUINN*
Affiliation:
International Studies Group, University of the Free State
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Abstract

This article uses the copper mining town Tsumeb to examine urban infrastructure, ethnicity, and African political solidarities in apartheid Namibia. To translate apartheid to Namibia, South Africa re-planned Namibian towns to reinforce colonial divisions between two classes of African laborers: mostly Ovambo migrant laborers from northern Namibia and Angola and, secondly, ethnically diverse laborers from the zone of colonial settlement and investment, the Police Zone. Housing and infrastructure were key to this social engineering project, serving as a conduit for official and company ideas about ‘Ovambo’ and Police Zone laborers. Yet Africans’ uses of infrastructure and ethnic discourses challenged, and provoked debates about the boundaries of urban social and political belonging. Between the 1971–2 general strike of northern contract workers and the 1987 strike against the multinational Tsumeb Corporation Limited, which involved northern contract workers and community members, Africans built a political community that challenged both company and colonial state.

Keywords

NamibiaSouth AfricaSouthern Africaapartheidlaborpoliticsurban
Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of African History , Volume 61 , Issue 1 , March 2020 , pp. 45 - 66
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

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Footnotes

Research for this article was funded by a Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad grant, as well as Stanford University's Center for African Studies and the School of Humanities and Sciences. I am grateful to Richard Roberts, James Campbell, Gabrielle Hecht, Michael Akuupa, Kletus Likuwa, Richard Waller, and Ian Phimister for comments, discussions, and support during the period of research and writing, as well as to two anonymous reviewers from The Journal of African History, though any errors are my own. Author's email: stephquinn19@gmail.com.

References

1 R. Munamava, ‘TCL corporation still crippled by strikes’, The Namibian (Windhoek), 31 July 1987. The strike encompassed TCL's two other mines in Kombat and Otjihase.

2 ‘Owambo’ is an Afrikaans spelling of the ethnonym ‘Ovambo’, which officials used to refer to the bantustan founded in central northern Namibia in 1968.

3 About 1,000 Nomtsoub residents participated in the strike, compared to some 2,000 residents of Tsumeb compound. I calculated the number of Nomtsoub strikers by checking newspaper coverage of the strike against previous numbers of occupants of the three TCL compounds. M. Verbaan and R. Munamava, ‘TCL eviction order succeeds’, The Namibian, 21 Aug. 1987; Gordon, R. J., Mines, Masters and Migrants: Life in a Namibian Compound (Johannesburg, 1977), 47Google Scholar; R. Munamava, ‘Police swoop to arrest 16’, The Namibian, 7 Aug. 1987; ‘TCL workers’ appeal dismissed’, The Namibian, 28 Aug. 1987.

4 On the Red Line, see Miescher, G., Namibia's Red Line: The History of a Veterinary and Settlement Border (New York, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Pekka Peltola called this strike the ‘Ovambo strike’. See Peltola, P., The Lost May Day: Namibian Workers Struggle for Independence (Helsinki, 1995), 108Google Scholar. At TCL at the time of the strike, over 98 per cent of African workers were northern contract laborers, and Ovambos consistently outnumbered recruits from Kavango among northern contract laborers. See Kramer, R. and Hultman, T., Tsumeb: A Profile of United States Contribution to Underdevelopment in Namibia (New York, 1973), 9Google Scholar.

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7 This article is based on 17 months of archival research and oral history interviews conducted over two years. I conducted semi-structured interviews in English. Where language was a barrier, interviews were conducted in Afrikaans or Oshiwambo with the assistance of an interpreter. Most archival sources were translated from Afrikaans.

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19 Tsumeb Museum Archives, Tsumeb (TMA), ‘Report on Otavi Minen und Eisenbahn Gesellschaft (Tsumeb Mine)’, 31 Dec. 1946. Documentary and photographic evidence suggests that while underground mineworkers were mostly northerners, northern contract laborers and workers from the Police Zone mixed in mining residential areas during the OMEG years. See TMA ‘Tsumeber Minenwerft’, n.d., ca. 1929; and TMA ‘Tsumeber Werft’, 30 Jan. 1925.

20 TMA, Tsumeb Corporation Limited, ‘Sie setzte sich zusammen aus…’, n.d.

21 Silvester, J., Wallace, M., and Hayes, P., ‘“Trees never meet”: mobility & containment: an overview, 1915–46’, in Hayes, P., Silvester, J., Wallace, M., and Hartmann, W. (eds.), Namibia Under South African Rule: Mobility and Containment, 1915–46 (Oxford, 1998), 16–22Google Scholar.

22 W. Werner, ‘An economic and social history of the Herero of Namibia, 1915–46’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cape Town, 1989), 65–6. OMEG allowed smelter workers to maintain livestock near Lake Otjikoto when there was no smelting to be done.

23 On the closure of the countryside covering an earlier period, see B. Fuller, Jr., ‘“We live in a manga”: constraint, resistance & transformation on a native reserve’, in Hayes, Silvester, Wallace, and Hartmann (eds.), Namibia Under South African Rule, 194–218; J. Silvester, ‘Beasts, boundaries & buildings: the survival and creation of pastoral economies in southern Namibia, 1915–35’, in Hayes, Silvester, Wallace, and Hartmann (eds.), Namibia Under South African Rule, 95–116; and Dieckmann, U., Hai//om in the Etosha Region: A History of Colonial Settlement, Ethnicity, and Nature Conservation (Basel, 2007)Google Scholar.

24 ‘Tsumeb – 75 years from 1905 to 1980’, Otjikoto Journal (Tsumeb), Oct. 1980.

25 National Archives of Namibia, Windhoek (NAN) BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, Assistant Secretary for Native Affairs, ‘Tsumeb: lokasie’, 8 Oct. 1957.

26 NAN BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, Secretary, Tsumeb Village Management Board to the Magistrate/Native Commissioner, ‘I/s: oorname van korporasie lokasie deur dorpsbestuur’, 21 Dec. 1956; NAN BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, memorandum from TCL General Manager to the Village Management Board, 13 Nov. 1957.

27 Interview with Christina and Julianne Somses, Tsumeb, 1 Mar. 2016.

28 Interview with Christina Hanis, Tsumeb, 24 Feb. 2016.

29 NAN SWAA 2467 A521/103, South West Africa Native Laborer's Commission, Report of the South West Africa Native Laborer's Commission, 1945–48.

30 On alcohol in Namibia, see Siiskonen, H., ‘Namibia and the heritage of colonial alcohol policy’, Nordic Journal of African Studies 3:1 (1994), 77–86Google Scholar; Gewald, J.-B., ‘Diluting drinks and deepening discontent: colonial liquor controls and public resistance in Windhoek, Namibia’, in Bryceson, D. (ed.), Alcohol in Africa: Mixing Business, Pleasure, and Politics (Portsmouth, NH, 2002), 117–38Google Scholar; Fumanti, M., The Politics of Distinction: African Elites From Colonialism to Liberation in a Namibian Frontier Town (Canon Pyon, UK, 2016)Google Scholar; Gordon, R., ‘Inside the Windhoek lager: liquor and lust in Namibia’, in Jankowiak, W. and Bradburd, D. (eds.), Drugs, Labor, and Colonial Expansion (Tuscon, AZ, 2003), 117–34Google Scholar; and van der Hoog, T., Breweries, Politics, and Identity: The History Behind Namibian Beer (Basel, 2019)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 NAN SAP 432 15/49/48, Deputy Commissioner SA Police, Commanding SW Africa Division to the Commissioner SA Police, ‘Native labor unrest: Tsumeb’, 27 July 1954; NAN SAP 432 15/49/48, Deputy Commissioner SA Police, Commanding SW Africa Division to the Secretary for SWA, ‘Ovambo onluste: Walvisbaai’, 1954.

32 NAN SAP 43 15/49/48, Deputy Commissioner SA Police, Commanding SW Africa Division to the Commissioner SA Police, ‘Naturelle onlus-Tsumeb S.W.A.’, 8 June 1954.

33 Ibid. NAN SAP 432 15/49/48, Deputy Commissioner SA Police, Commanding SW Africa Division to the Commissioner SA Police, ‘Naturelle onluste: Tsumeb’, 17 June 1954.

34 NAN BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, ‘Minutes of a special meeting of the Tsumeb Village Management Board’, 19 Sept. 1957; NAN BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, ‘Jaarverslag 1958’.

35 National Archives of South Africa, Pretoria (NASA) NTS 2056 89/280, Transvaal Manager, Roberts Construction Company to Director of Native Labor, ‘Re: native labor for South West Africa’, 2 Aug. 1954; NASA NTS 2056 89/280, Director, L. A. Steens SWA, 17 Feb. 1954; NAN NTS 2056 89/280, Transvaal Manager, Roberts Construction Company to Secretary of Native Affairs, ‘Re: construction work in South West Africa’, 4 Nov. 1954.

36 NAN BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, ‘Jaarverslag 1962’.

37 TMA, M. D. Banghart to C. Stott, 27 Mar. 1960; ‘Tsumeb – 75 years’.

38 NAN BAC 81 HN 3/12/2/20, Grootfontein Bantu Affairs Commissioner to the Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner, ‘Tsumeb Corporation: native laborers employed by Messrs Lewis Construction Ltd’, 19 Apr. 1961.

39 NASA BAO 3091 C39/1281 part 2, Senior Expert Official (Welfare), ‘Social development semester report’, 7 Sept. 1966; NASA BAO 3091 C39/1281 part 2, Chief of Social Development to the Under-secretary Bantu Labor, ‘Semesterverslag: SWA’, 12 May 1967.

40 NAN PLA 1033 P84/39/3/1, Secretary Tsumeb Village Management Board to the Secretary of SWA, ‘Aansoek om lenings: Tsumeb inboorlingwoonbuurt’, 24 June 1965.

41 NAN BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, P. H. Swartz to Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner, 29 Sept. 1962.

42 Ibid.

43 NAN BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, P. H. Swartz to Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner, 24 Oct. 1962.

44 NAN BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, ‘Jaarverslag 1958’; NAN MTS 9 N1/35, ‘Jaarverslag 1968’.

45 NAN MTS 41 T.2/1, J. P. Ratledge to Head of Local Government, ‘Revision of proclamation 40 of 1968’, 1 June 1971.

46 NAN MTS 39 R4/4, Tsumeb Town Clerk to the Secretary of SWA, ‘Verhoging van tariewe’, 9 June 1971.

47 NAN MTS 41 T.2/1, Town Clerk to TCL General Manager, ‘Cost of services rendered by Tsumeb Corporation’, 17 Feb. 1971; NAN MTS 41 T.2/1, TCL General Manager to Town Clerk, ‘Cost of services rendered by Tsumeb Corporation’, 24 Feb. 1971; NAN MTS 41 T.2/1, ‘Stadsklerk se opmerkings’, 22 Feb. 1971; NAN MTS 41 T.2/1, Town Clerk to TCL Secretary, ‘Closing of municipal account numbers’, 12 Sept. 1972.

48 NAN MTS 8 N1/14, ‘Maandverslag Feb. 1970’; NAN MTS 8 N1/14, ‘Maandverslag Okt. 1970’; NAN MTS 33 N1/4(a), Tsumeb Location Superintendent to Town Clerk, ‘Hervestiging van liefmeide in inboorlingtuislande’, 11 July 1972.

49 NAN MTS 8 N1/14, ‘Maandverslag Julie 1970’.

50 NAN MTS 9 N1/35, Location Superintendent to Town Clerk, ‘Privaatkamponge’, 17 Sept. 1970.

51 NAN BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, ‘Jaarverslag 1958’; NAN BAC 164 HN 9/15/3/30, ‘Jaarverslag 1962’; NAN MTS 9 N1/35, ‘Jaarverslag 1968’.

52 NAN MTS 8 N1/14, ‘Maandverslag May 1969’.

53 NAN MTS 8 N1/14, ‘Maandverslag June 1969’; NAN MTS 8 N1/14, ‘Maandverslag Aug. 1969’.

54 NAN MTS 8 N1/14, ‘Maandverslag Sept. 1969’.

55 NAN MTS 8 N1/14, ‘Maandverslag Sept. 1970’.

56 Katjavivi, P., A History of Resistance in Namibia (London, 1988)Google Scholar.

57 Kane-Berman, J., Contract Labour in South West Africa (Johannesburg, 1972), 5–6Google Scholar.

58 Kramer and Hultman, Tsumeb, 10.

59 Ibid. 12.

60 Bauer, G., Labor and Democracy in Namibia (Athens, OH, 1998), 36Google Scholar.

61 University of Cape Town Special Collections (UCTSC), Simons Collection box 5, ‘Press statement by the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) of Namibia, Lusaka’, 4 Feb. 1972.

62 ‘Special trains arranged for Ovambo strikers’, Windhoek Advertiser, 15 Dec. 1971; ‘Surprise as 250 Oranjemund Ovambos join SWA strike’, Rand Daily Mail, 4 Jan. 1972; ‘South Africa flies extra policemen to area of strike by 13,000 black miners’, New York Times, 13 Jan. 1972. The latter article refers to strikers as ‘Ovambo tribesmen’. None of the above articles mentions SWAPO.

63 Moorsom, ‘Underdevelopment’.

64 Bauer, Labor and Democracy.

65 The settlement replaced SWANLA with employment bureaus attached to the bantustan governments in Owambo and Kavango, and provided for the later establishment of bureaus in every district in the Police Zone. Labor bureau regulations were applied to Africans in SWA by Proclamation R83 of 1972 and Proclamation R323 of 1972.

66 Katjavivi, History of Resistance, 69.

67 Ibid. 92–4.

68 UCTSC Simons Collection, box 3, ‘Part 2: The strike’, a summary of the strike, drawing on news reports. Kapuuo was quoted in The Rand Daily Mail, 15 Dec. 1971.

69 Kapuuo is quoted in Herbstein, D. and Evenson, J., The Devils Are Among Us: The War for Namibia (London, 1989), 39Google Scholar. See also Gewald, J.-B., ‘Who killed Clemens Kapuuo?’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 30:3 (2004), 564CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70 Interview with Albertina Shikonda and Lucia Amadhila, Walvis Bay, 31 Aug. 2017.

71 The events are filtered through the witnesses’ recollections, as well as their perceptions of how ethnicity, comportment, and place of residence interrelated. The transcriptions of testimonies assign an ethnicity to each witness, so that the perceptions and assumptions of the police also enter the mix. All of the testimonies were given in Afrikaans.

72 NAN LTS 5/1 1/75, H. Moses testimony, ‘Inquest: Act 58 of 1959, E. Theofilus’, 1 Mar. 1974; NAN LTS 5/1 1/75, O. Neibab testimony, 1 Mar. 1974; NAN LTS 5/1 1/75, S. Gideon testimony, 1 Mar. 1974.

73 NAN LTS 5/1 1/75, T. Martin testimony, 22 Jan. 1974; NAN LTS 5/1 1/75, S. Gideon testimony, 1 Mar. 1974.

74 NAN LTS 5/1 1/75, F. Wahengo testimony, 24 Jan. 1974.

75 NAN LTS 5/1 1/75, T. Martin testimony, 3 Sept. 1974.

76 Ombwiti is used in Oshiwambo, while mbwiti is used in Kavango languages. K. Likuwa, personal communication, 4 Aug. 2017. See N. Xulu-Gama's discussion of the isiZulu word ibhunguka in her ethnography of the KwaMashu Hostel and informal settlement in Durban. Xulu-Gama, N., Hostels in South Africa: Spaces of Perplexity (Pietermaritzburg, 2017), 188Google Scholar.

77 Williams, C. A., National Liberation in Postcolonial Southern Africa: A Historical Ethnography of SWAPO's Exile Camps (Cambridge, 2015), 129–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

78 Interview with Mike Heita, Tsumeb, 13 Aug. 2017.

79 Interview with Eino Huauanga, Tsumeb, 2 Aug. 2017.

80 Fraser, A. and Larmer, M. (eds.), Zambia, Mining, and Neoliberalism: Boom and Bust on the Globalized Copperbelt (New York, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Littlewood, D., ‘Corporate social responsibility, mining and sustainable development in Namibia: critical reflections through a relational lens’, Development Southern Africa, 32:2 (2015), 240–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ferguson, J., Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meanings of Urban Life on the Zambian Copperbelt (Chicago, 1999)Google Scholar; von Schnitzler, Democracy's Infrastructure.

81 Von Schnitzler, Democracy's Infrastructure, 81.

82 Quoted in NAN PLA 1033 P84/39/3/1, Town Clerk to the Secretary of Bantu Administration and Development, ‘Verandering van grense en uitbreiding van bestaande Bantoe-woonbuurt: Tsumeb’, 27 Jan. 1976.

83 NAN PLA 1033 P84/39/3/1, Town Clerk to Secretary of SWA, ‘Lenings aan plaaslike bestuur: 1976–7 and 1977–8’, 1 July 1976; NAN PLA 1033 P84/39/3/1, Director Local Government to Town Clerk, ‘Lening: inboorlingbehuising’, 9 July 1976.

84 NAN MTS N1/28, ‘Jaarverslag 1977’.

85 Heymans, C., ‘Privatization and municipal reform’, in Swilling, M., Humphries, R., and Shubane, K. (eds.), Apartheid City in Transition (Cape Town, 1991), 151–73Google Scholar.

86 NAN PLA 1034 P84/39/3/1, ‘Verslag oor die sosiale omstandighede en behoefte bepalings van die Nomtsoub dorpsgebied Tsumeb’, 20 Oct. 1978.

87 NAN PLA 1034 P84/39/3/2, ‘Begroting en finale states: tariewe Nomtsoub woonbuurt’, 20 Sept. 1977.

88 NAN PLA 1034 P84/39/3/1, Town Clerk to SWA Administrator General, ‘Nie-blanke behuising’, 8 Mar. 1978.

89 du Pisani, A., SWA/Namibia: The Politics of Continuity and Change (Johannesburg, 1986), 356–64Google Scholar; Simon, D., ‘Decolonization and local government in Namibia: the neo-apartheid plan, 1977–83’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 23:3 (1985), 507–26CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

90 NAN MTS 35 N1/28, ‘Jaarverslag 1977’; TMA, ‘Verslag van sy Edelagbare, die Burgemeester Raadslid Tonie Botes vir die jaartydperk geëindig 21 Mar. 1984: Tsumeb Sensus 1982’.

91 Ibid. For comparison, Nomtsoub's Damara population, which increased as quickly as the location's northern population in the 1960s, increased only 6.1 per cent, from 1,801 to 1,910, between 1977 and 1982. The corresponding numbers for Hereros were a decrease of 28.8 per cent, from 660 to 470.

92 NAN PLA 1034 P84/39/3/1, ‘Verslag oor die vervanging van bouvallige wonings in Nomtsoub’, Sept. 1977.

93 NAN PLA 1034 P84/39/3/1, Acting Town Clerk to Director of Local Government, ‘Nie-blanke behuising: Nomtsoub woonbuurt lening fase 7 – behuising vir bevolkingsaanwas’, 7 Nov. 1979.

94 NAN PB/3398, National Building and Investment Corporation of South West Africa/Namibia, ‘A socio-economic study of households in Nomtsoub (“Soweto” and the rest of Nomtsoub)’, Nov. 1985.

95 TMA, ‘Verslag van sy Edelagbare, Die Burgemeester Raadslid Tonie Botes vir die jaartydperk geëindig 21 Maart 1984’.

96 ‘Cost cuts of R13 million announced: TCL comes to grips with austerity measures’, Otjikoto Journal, Mar. 1981; Morris, J., Going for Gold: The History of Newmont Mining Corporation (Tuscaloosa, AL, 2010), 133–4Google Scholar.

97 C. A. Penn, ‘Investing in South Africa: moral issue with a bottom line’, New York Times, 15 May 1983; D. W. Dunlap, ‘Pension fund to divest South African holdings’, New York Times, 31 May 1984; Interview with Bob Meiring, Windhoek, 8 Sept. 2015; ‘Massachusetts to end South Africa investment’, New York Times, 5 Jan. 1983.

98 ‘Goldfields under fire at AGM’, The Namibian, 29 Nov. 1985; Morris, Going for Gold, 135–6 and 181–3.

99 ‘Goldfields takes over’, The Namibian, 28 Nov. 1986.

100 Bauer, Labor and Democracy, 45.

101 ‘Public holiday fiasco’, The Namibian, 20 Mar. 1987; ‘May 1 is now a public holiday’, The Namibian, 17 Apr. 1987.

102 The Namibian featured full-page ads in almost every issue from 20 March through the first week in May.

103 R. Munamava, ‘TCL workers turn out in force at Tsumeb rally’, The Namibian, 8 May 1987.

104 Ibid.

105 R. Munamava, ‘Tsumeb consumer boycott enters third week’, The Namibian, 26 June 1987.

106 M. Ngavirue, ‘TCL can't meet demands’, The Namibian, 17 July 1987.

107 R. Munamava, ‘TCL corporation still crippled by strikes’, ‘MUN officials banned from TCL meeting’, The Namibian, 24 July 1987; NAN PC/0116, MUN, ‘Miners speak’.

108 See note 3 above.

109 Verbaan and Munamava, ‘TCL eviction order’.

110 ‘Unhappy Resident’, ‘Tsumeb problems’, The Namibian, 1 July 1988.

111 ‘Worried Student’, ‘On Otjikoto’, The Namibian, 12 Aug. 1988.