1 Heldt, Birger, ‘Trends from 1948 to 2005: How to View the Relations between the UN and Non-UN Entities’, in Daniel, Donald C.F., Taft, Patricia, and Wihara, Sharon (eds), Peace Operations: Trends, Progress, and Prospects (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2008), p. 12Google Scholar .

2 For a recent overview, see Bah, A. Sarjoh and Jones, Bruce D., ‘Peace Operation Partnerships: Lessons and Issues from Coordination to Hybrid Arrangements’, in the Center on International Cooperation, Annual Review of Global Peace Operations 2008 (Boulder, CO and London: Lynne Rienner, 2008), pp. 21–29Google Scholar .

3 See, for example, ‘Report to the Ministers by the NACC Ad Hoc Group on Cooperation in Peacekeeping’, NATO Press Communique, M-NACC-1(93)40 (11 June 1993); Katherine N. Andrews and Victoria K. Holt, ‘UN-African Union Coordination on Peace and Security in Africa’, Issue Brief, The Henry L. Stimson Center (August 2007); Thierry Tardy, ‘Limits and Opportunities of UN-EU Relations in Peace Operations: Implications for DPK’, External Paper for the UN DPKO Best Practices Unit (September 2003).

4 See, for example, Caplan, Richard, Post-mortem on UNPROFOR (London: Centre for Defence Studies, 1996), p. 33Google Scholar ; Gow, James, Triumph of the Lack of Will: International Diplomacy and the Yugoslav War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1997), pp. 136–139Google Scholar .

5 Morris, Justin and McCoubrey, Hilaire, ‘Regional Peacekeeping in the Post-Cold War Era’, International Peacekeeping, 6:2 (Summer 1999), pp. 129–151CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

6 See, for example, Friis, Karsten, ‘Peacekeeping and Counter-insurgency – Two of a Kind?’ International Peacekeeping, 17:1 (February 2010), pp. 49–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

7 For recent discussions on this theme, see, for example, Wirtz, James J. and Larsen, Jeffrey A. (eds), Naval Peacekeeping and Humanitarian Operations: Stability from the Sea (London: Routledge, 2009)Google Scholar .

8 On the other hand, however, this definition excludes certain types of activities. They include small missions such as observer, human rights, situation monitoring, and electoral monitoring missions which generally lack field components. More debatably, deployments by multinational and national forces, some of which collaborated with UN and regional peacekeepers are also not included. Examples include the Italy-led Operation Alba (1997, Albania), Britain's Operation Palliser (2000, Sierra Leone), Australia-led International Force for East Timor and Operation Astute (1999–2000 and 2006–, East Timor), France's Operation Licorne (2002–, Ivory Coast), and US-led multinational forces (1994–1995 and 2004, Haiti). Their tasks overlap with those of more ‘typical’ peacekeeping missions, but it is of the opinion that they may be more straightforwardly understood as military interventions.

9 For the use of this term, see, for example, Tardy, ‘Limits and Opportunities’, p. 11; Bellamy, Allex J., Williams, Paul, and Griffin, Stuart, Understanding Peacekeeping (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004), chap. 11Google Scholar .

10 See, for example, Newman, Edward and Richmond, Oliver (eds), Challenges to Peacebuilding: Managing Spoilers during Conflict Resolution (Tokyo: UN University Press, 2006)Google Scholar .

11 See UN Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines (January 2008), chap. 3.

12 I am grateful to Kimberly Marten for suggesting this term.

13 On 6 October 2007, the CSTO agreed on inclusion of peacekeeping within its range of activities, making itself a potential peacekeeping actor in the future. Remarks by Kyrgyzstan in SCOR, 5776th meeting, S/PV/5776 (6 November 2007), p. 30; see also, remarks by the CSTO Secretary General in SCOR, 6257th meeting, S/PV/6257 (13 January 2010), p. 9.

14 Jean-Marie Guehenno, ‘Peace Operations 2010’, Interoffice Memorandum to All DPKO Headquarters and Mission Staff (30 November 2005).

15 Report of the Secretary-General, A/61/668 (13 February 2007), para. 46; Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations and Its Working Groups, A/61/19 (Part II) (5 June 2007), para. 180.

16 Report of the Secretary-General, A/61/858 (13 April 2007), paras 78–80; Report of the Secretary-General, A/62/783 (7 April 2008), paras 111–12.

17 This does not mean that there was no interest in the issue in UN circles during the other periods. For instance, there was a study by the DPKO's Lessons Learned Unit in March 1999 on suggested principles and mechanisms to enhance cooperation. See DPKO Lessons Learned Unit, ‘Cooperation between the UN and Regional Organizations/Arrangements in a Peacekeeping Environment: Suggested Principles and Mechanisms’ (March 1999).

18 An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-keeping, A/47/277-S/24111 (17 June 1992), para. 64.

19 Notes by the President of the Security Council, S/25184 and S/25859 (29 January and 28 May 1993).

20 Report of the Secretary-General, S/25996 (with addendums 1–6) (15 June 1993). See also Reports of the Secretary-General, A/47/965-S/25944 and A/48/403-S/26450 (with addendums 1–2) (15 June 1993 and 14 March 1994); and Reports of the Special Committee on Peace-keeping Operations, A/48/173 and A/49/136 (25 May 1993 and 2 May 1994).

21 CSCE, Helsinki Document: The Challenges of Change, Second CSCE Summit, 9–10 July 1992; and Summary of Conclusions and Decision on Peaceful Settlement of Disputes, Third Meeting of the CSCE Council of Ministers (14 December 1992).

22 NATO, the Alliance's Strategic Concept Agreed by the Heads of State and Government Participating in the Meeting of the North Atlantic Council (8 November 1991); and Final Communique of the Ministerial Meeting of the North Atlantic Council (4 June 1992).

23 WEU, Petersburg Declaration (19 June 1992).

24 OAU, Decision on a Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution (29 June-1 July 1992); see also Declaration on the Establishment of a Mechanism on Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution, 30 June 1993.

25 S/25996, para. D.20.

26 Ibid., para. D.22.

27 Ibid., para. B.6.

28 Ibid., para. B.7.

29 S/25996/Add.3, 1 September 1993, paras 11–13 and 16; see also Report of the Secretary-General, A/48/475/Add.1 (15 October 1993), para. 19.

30 General Assembly Resolution 49/57 (17 February 1995), Annex, paras 4–10 (quotation from paras 4–5).

31 Supplement to an Agenda for Peace: Position Paper of the Secretary-General on the Occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the UN, A/50/60-S/1995/1 (25 January 1995), paras 86–8; see also para. 24.

32 A/50/60-S/1995/1, para. 88.

33 ‘Uniformed Personnel in UN Peacekeeping: 1991 – Present’, available at: {http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/chart.pdf} accessed on 9 December 2008.

34 In June 1999 the number was 12,084, the lowest in the downward trend starting in 1995 when several major operations in the Balkans (UNPROFOR, UN Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia) and Somalia (UN Operation in Somalia) were terminated. ‘Monthly Summary of Military and Civilan Police Contribution to UN Operations’, available at: {http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/contributors/Yearly_Summary.pdf}, accessed on 8 December 2008.

35 This is reflected, for instance, in the semi-regular occurrence of Security Council meetings since 2003 inviting high-level representatives of regional organisations to discuss cooperation between the UN and regional organisations in international peace and security. There have so far been five such meetings (April 2003, July 2004, October 2005, September 2006, and January 2010). Other than these meetings, the Council has held open debates on the issue among the UN membership as well as meetings on more focused themes such as cooperation with the AU.

36 Report of the Secretary-General, A/58/694 (26 January 2004), para. 3.

37 A/58/694, para. 84.

38 Report of the Secretary-General, A/59/591 (30 November 2004), para. 11.

39 ‘Peace Operations 2010’, p. 4.

40 ‘Ibid., p. 6 and 4.

41 Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations and Its Working Group at the 2006 Substantive Session, A/60/19 (22 March 2006), para. 34.

42 The recent DPKO non-paper also argues that ‘case-specific and creative partnerships with international, regional and bilateral actors’ involve transaction costs and efforts to limit such costs and redundancy of capacity must therefore be ‘intensified’. DPKO and Department of Field Support (DFS), A New Partnership Agenda: Charting a New Horizon for UN Peacekeeping (New York, NY: July 2009), p. 34.

43 Report of the Secretary-General, A/60/640 (29 December 2005), para. 29.

44 Report of the Secretary-General, A/61/204-S/2006/590 (28 July 2006), para. 88.

45 A/48/475/Add.1, para. 23.

46 S/25996/Add.3, para. 13. Emphasis added.

47 SCOR, S/PV.3819 (25 September 1997), pp. 7–8.

48 S/PV.3819, p. 5.

49 Statement by the President of the Security Council, S/PRST/1995/9 (22 February 1995).

50 Report of the Special Committee on Peace-keeping Operations, A/50/230 (22 June 1995), paras 83 and 90–1.

51 Report of the Secretary-General, A/50/711-S/1995/911 (1 November 1995), paras 9–10, 17, 32, 37, 40 (quotation from para. 17).

52 Report of the Secretary-General, A/54/63-S/1999/171 (12 February 1999), paras 15 and Annex; Report of the Secretary-General, A/54/484 (21 October 1999), para. 6.

53 Second Report of the Secretary-General on the UN Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, S/2000/330 (18 April 2000), para. 14 and attached deployment map.

54 A/54/63-S/1999/171, para. 43. On 21 January 1999, the DPKO and the OAU also convened a meeting to discuss measures to strengthen African peacekeeping. Representatives of 27 African states joined the meeting. A/54/484, para. 16.

55 See in particular Council of the EU General Secretariat, ‘The Africa-EU Strategic Partnership’ (June 2008); ‘G8 Africa Action Plan’ (27 June 2002); and ‘G8 Action Plan: Expanding Global Capability for Peace Support Operations’ (10 June 2004). The UN, G8 and EU leaders also held a coordination meeting on 6 and 7 March 2003 in Berlin. Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations and Its Working Groups, A/57/767 (28 March 2003), para. 167.

56 See, for example, Report of the Secretary-General, A/56/732 (21 December 2001), para. 53 and 56; A/59/591, para. 16.

57 Report of the Secretary-General, A/57/711 (16 January 2003), para. 83.

58 A/58/694, para. 94.

59 Decision on the African Standby Force (ASF) and the Military Staff Committee (MSC), Assembly/AU/Dec.35 (III) (6–8 July 2004).

60 Policy Framework for the African Standby Force and the Military Staff Committee (Part I), Exp/ASF-MSC/2(I) (15–16 May 2003), para. 2.27.

61 Roadmap for the Operationalization of the African Standby Force, EXP/AU-RECs/ASF/4(I) (22–23 March 2005), para. 28.

62 A/59/591, para. 18.

63 Ibid., paras 19–32.

64 Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations and Its Working Groups, A/59/19/Rev.1 (2005), para. 120.

65 The UN Assistance Cell for the AMIS had been set up in October 2004. A/60/640, para. 30.

66 A/60/640, para. 31.

67 A/60/19, para. 143.

68 A/61/668/Add.1, para. 45.

69 A/62/783, para. 78. For the initial budget proposal see Report of the Secretary-General, A/60/727 (23 March 2006), paras 108–19.

70 General Assembly Resolution 60/1 (24 October 2005), para. 93 and Resolution 1631 (17 October 2005).

71 Enhancing UN-AU Cooperation: Framework for the Ten-year Capacity Building Programme for the African Union, A/61/630 (12 December 2006), annex.

72 In addition, the Security Council and the Secretariat have been discussing the modalities for funding AU's peace operations and supporting its institutional capacity development. The initial study, conducted by a panel with Romano Prodi serving as its chairman, was completed in December 2008. See Resolution 1809 (16 April 2008); Report of the African Union-UN Panel on Modalities for Support to African Union Peacekeeping Operations, S/63/666-S/2008/813 (31 December 2008); Statement by the President of the Security Council, S/PRST/2009/3 (18 March 2009); Support to African Union Peacekeeping Operations Authorized by the UN, A/64/359–S/2009/470 (18 September 2009).

73 A/58/694, para. 92.

74 Joint Declaration on UN-EU Cooperation in Crisis Management (19 September 2003).

75 European Council, EU-UN Cooperation in Military Crisis Management Operations: Elements of Implementation of the EU-UN Joint Declaration (17–18 June 2004), para. 2.

76 European Council, EU-UN Co-operation, para. 8.

77 Ibid., paras 9–14.

78 EU Council Secretariat, Factsheet: EU Battlegroups (February 2007), available at: {http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/Battlegroups_February_07-factsheet.pdf} accessed on 15 December 2008.

79 Joint Statement on UN-EU Cooperation in Crisis Management (7 June 2007).

80 See Tardy, ‘Limits and Opportunities’, pp. 8–9.

81 The document also includes two generic checklists, one for adopting a Security Council Resolution authorsiing an EU operation and the other for setting out the terms for the EU operation in support for a UN mission. DPKO/DFS, Guidelines for Joint UN-EU Planning Applicable to Existing UN Field Missions (13 June 2008).

82 When discussing the role of UN peacekeeping I am not attributing such role to a single entity or actor of the organization; instead, the role should be taken on by all such actors – the Security Council, Member States, and the Secretariat – insofar as they are responsible for the establishment of UN peacekeeping missions. Indeed, it is because of the diversity and multitude of such actors that they need to share a general conceptual framework. The same can be said of regional organizations such as the AU and the EU.

83 A/61/668, para. 39.

84 See, in particular, remarks by the DPKO and DFS chiefs, Alain Le Roy and Susanna Malcorra, in SCOR, 6075th meeting, S/PV/6075 (23 January 2009), pp. 3–10.

85 Gowan, Richard, ‘The Future of Peacekeeping Operations: Fighting Political Fatigue and Overstretch’, Friedlich Ebert Stiftung Briefing Paper No.3 (March 2009), pp. 3–4Google Scholar .

86 A/61/668, para. 47.

87 Ibid., para. 50.

88 Yamashita, Hikaru, ‘“Impartial” Use of Force in UN Peacekeeping’, International Peacekeeping, 15:5 (November 2008), pp. 615–630CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

89 Report of the Secretary-General, A/59/608 (15 December 2004), para. 9.