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2285 results in Ebooks in ecology and environment

Page 36 of 115

  • 17 - Hydrologic Cycle

  • from Part VI - Water
  • Chadwick Dearing Oliver, Yale University, Connecticut, Fatma Arf Oliver
  • Book:
    Global Resources and the Environment
    Published online:
    05 July 2018
    Print publication:
    21 June 2018, pp 265-282

  • Summary

    Water has thermal, chemical, and physical properties that make it versatile and necessary for nearly all life. Its high specific heat, high latent heat, and turbulent and conductive thermal properties make it capable of stabilizing temperatures and transporting energy efficiently. Its polarized nature allows many ionic substances to dissolve in it. It’s physical expansion when freezing enables it to weather rocks and float as ice, so it melts faster when weather warms. Water circulates among oceans, the atmosphere, land, plants and animals, soil, aquifers, rivers, and glaciers in a “hydrologic cycle.” Over 96% of the water is salty in oceans, and another 2% is ice. The remaining 2% is fresh water. A concern is the cleanliness and volume of water. Aquifers can be drawn down, polluted, or made salty and usable without care. Surface water travels between countries and agreements are needed on who uses the water. Forests help prevent flash floods by maintaining soil infiltration with their roots, and may reduce or increase total stream flow, depending on many factors. When water doesn’t infiltrate soils, it flows rapidly overland, scours stream channels, and lowers the water table.

  • 27 - Rocks and Minerals: Production, Use, Distribution

  • from Part IX - Minerals
  • Chadwick Dearing Oliver, Yale University, Connecticut, Fatma Arf Oliver
  • Book:
    Global Resources and the Environment
    Published online:
    05 July 2018
    Print publication:
    21 June 2018, pp 424-442

  • Summary

    Annual volumes of minerals produced vary by mineral from billions of tons for iron ore to less than 100 tons for diamonds. Cement and quarry stone are found throughout the world, and many others are found in few places. Some elements are being defined as “critical raw materials” that are both needed and limited in availability for technical, economic, or political reasons. Minerals are used in many ways-gases, liquids, metals, crystals, raw materials for chemicals, bulk rocks, quarry stone, ornaments, energy, and currency. The kinds of elements used have increased with technologies. The mining of some minerals has increased; however, mining of other minerals have not because recycling satisfies the increasing demand. Cement production has risen sharply in China as it develops its infrastructure; in contrast, the United States uses relatively little because its infrastructure is already in place. Minerals commonly accumulate so slow that we will be unable to rely on natural cycling systems. Consequently, we will need a combination of ways to avoid shortages, including recycling, substitution, synthesis of molecules and compounds, and forecasting and adjusting various productions.

  • 24 - Conserving Energy and Renewable Energy

  • from Part VIII - Energy
  • Chadwick Dearing Oliver, Yale University, Connecticut, Fatma Arf Oliver
  • Book:
    Global Resources and the Environment
    Published online:
    05 July 2018
    Print publication:
    21 June 2018, pp 375-394

  • Summary

    Per capita energy consumption increased from about 1880 to 1970, but stabilized since; however, global consumption has increased with the population. Energy sources have changed with availability and social concerns. . Electric energy generated from fossil fuels is very energy-inefficient because only 30% as much electricity is produced as fossil fuel energy is consumed in the process. Fossil fuel energy production has been in large infrastructures; smaller, more diffuse energy production means using renewables are now proposed. Currently very little energy comes from renewable sources, but the amount is growing rapidly. It is questionable whether nuclear energy is renewable; however, it needs a large, concentrated infrastructure and has been fraught with accidents. Of renewable energy sources, hydroelectricity is most used at present. Biofuels are also used but consume water and reduce biodiversity. Concentrated solar power appears very promising, although photovoltaics are becoming relatively popular. Energy can also be saved without curtailing life styles by better insulation, wood use in construction. Energy is used for industry, residences, commerce, and transportation.

  • 21 - Agriculture and the Green Revolution

  • from Part VII - Agriculture
  • Chadwick Dearing Oliver, Yale University, Connecticut, Fatma Arf Oliver
  • Book:
    Global Resources and the Environment
    Published online:
    05 July 2018
    Print publication:
    21 June 2018, pp 327-346

  • Summary

    Food domestication began in several places independently. Now, most crops can be found worldwide. A “Green Revolution” was declared in 1968 when world food production had outpaced need. Different crops grow at different efficiencies (Calories or protein grams per ha), but food production has become increasingly efficient with breeding, machineries, fertilizers, better techniques, and sharing knowledge. Increased food production is generally caused by increases in crop production per ha more than increases in cultivated ha’s. Equipment for cultivating and irrigating have become more effective. Irrigation has increased partly to counteract the pesticides and fertilizers used. Pesticides are used for pests, and graduated pest controls (Integrated Pest Management) has developed. Nitrogen fertilizer is used, and requires much fossil fuel. Soil organic amendments, and frost management are now sophisticated. Organic farming is becoming more water efficient and cost-effective, and possibly equally productive. Some or all organic farming techniques may be adopted. Organic farming may employ more, technical people instead of heavy equipment and become a rural social driver.

  • 1 - Introduction

  • from Part I - Introduction, Dynamic Systems, and Change
  • Chadwick Dearing Oliver, Yale University, Connecticut, Fatma Arf Oliver
  • Book:
    Global Resources and the Environment
    Published online:
    05 July 2018
    Print publication:
    21 June 2018, pp 3-11

  • Summary

    This book helps readers avoid becoming overwhelmed with environmental and resource issues. It gives understanding, not motivation, and should “slow the world down,” not increase anxiety. The book is about resources viewed in the context of their environment and people. Resources are discussed in five categories: water, food, energy, minerals, and forests. Three categories of the environment are discussed: climate, landforms, and biodiversity. The book addresses an overarching socio-environmental system, not artificially separating people from the environment. Resources, the environment, and people are viewed as dynamic systems and reflect recent understandings of sustainability. The book is optimistic, standing midway between environmental ruin and technological heaven. Depletion and misuse present serious challenges, but the world currently has sufficient resources although unevenly distributed. Environmental factors, resources, and human societies always change, but at different spatial and temporal scales, in different ways, and with different degrees of abruptness. The book uses thirty-two global regions and maps and charts to show many distributions.

  • 15 - Robust and Threatened Communities and Species

  • from Part V - Biodiversity
  • Chadwick Dearing Oliver, Yale University, Connecticut, Fatma Arf Oliver
  • Book:
    Global Resources and the Environment
    Published online:
    05 July 2018
    Print publication:
    21 June 2018, pp 236-250

  • Summary

    The Earth’s terrestrial vegetation can be divided into five “floristic realms” that contain genetically different plants on animals because of past isolations of continents. The floristic realms are different sizes and contain different species numbers. Species introductions between floristic realms can lead to extinctions, especially of the smaller, weaker realm. Protecting all habitats--closed/open forests, grasslands, and deserts/tundra each occupy nearly one third world’s land. Forests seem to contain more country-endemic, endangered species than other land covers. Urban and agriculture areas occupy about fourteen percent and would not be expected to support much biodiversity. Tropical rainforest contains (estimate) the most plant and animal species, with decreasing numbers in the temperate, desert, and polar ecoregions. Species concentrations are highest in a few, small places in the world; and “biodiversity hotspots”—areas of high species extinction concerns—are distributed slightly differently. Birds and flowering plants seem to be the most threatened. Species are distribution unevenly, with some being concentrated in one part of a continent and others elsewhere.

  • 31 - Integrating the Environment, Resources, and People

  • from Part XI - Perspective
  • Chadwick Dearing Oliver, Yale University, Connecticut, Fatma Arf Oliver
  • Book:
    Global Resources and the Environment
    Published online:
    05 July 2018
    Print publication:
    21 June 2018, pp 485-491

  • Summary

    The environment, resources, and human societies will all change—but at different rates and frequencies and gradually or in sudden shifts. Human societies will fare well if they embrace and try to direct it, rather than deny and resist it. Scientific and technical knowledge help prepare for the changes. Successful transitions to changes will necessitate cooperative attitudes and communication infrastructures among people, based on the realization that there is now and can be sufficient resources if we share. Smaller, diffuse, leapfrog technologies will probably be most effective. New social drivers in rural and urban areas can emerge based on skilled scientific and technical management using small, precise methods and machinery. Each environmental and resource system will need to be addressed differently—some preserved and others adjusted slightly or dramatically. We can already identify probable changes and key issues of concern for each environmental factor and resource. Like all predictions, these are imperfect, but can enable us to avoid being overwhelmed by unexpected events. Instead, we can proactively anticipate changes, prepare, and seek to use them to our advantage.

  • 30 - Silviculture, Forest Degradation, Landscape Management

  • from Part X - Forests
  • Chadwick Dearing Oliver, Yale University, Connecticut, Fatma Arf Oliver
  • Book:
    Global Resources and the Environment
    Published online:
    05 July 2018
    Print publication:
    21 June 2018, pp 468-482

  • Summary

    Forests exist in many structures based on growth, disturbances, and human manipulations. Sustained timber yields were a forerunner to sustainable development. A modification in which all stand structures are maintained across a landscape gives the greatest promise for providing the most commodity and non-commodity values sustainably. Silviculture, the tending of forests, has gained centuries of knowledge. Silviculture has been categorized into “systems,” but is now being separated into “pathways” and “operations.” Silviculture pathways are changes in stand structures resulting from growth and specific manipulations. The specific manipulations are “operations” and include protection, restoration, tree removal, site preparation, regeneration and genetic improvement, and timber stand improvement. Maintaining all structures and timber flow sustainably across a landscape is more feasible than trying to manage each stand through selective harvesting; and computer models are aiding landscape planning. Agroforestry is useful where a high Purchasing Power Parity Advantage exists, since importing timber or fossil fuels is expensive. Forests can be managed for resilience to climate changes.

  • 7 - Global Distribution of Climates

  • from Part III - Climates
  • Chadwick Dearing Oliver, Yale University, Connecticut, Fatma Arf Oliver
  • Book:
    Global Resources and the Environment
    Published online:
    05 July 2018
    Print publication:
    21 June 2018, pp 87-102

  • Summary

    Climates strongly influence what vegetation grows, and so ecological zone locations can be understood by climate patterns, which are quite predictable. Air is most heated at the equator. The heated air and incorporated water vapor move upward, and then poleward, returning to earth hotter and drier partway to the poles. They create circulation patterns that are repeated at higher latitudes and mirrored in the northern and southern hemisphere. The Earth’s rotation (coriolis effect) causes these circulation patterns to become west-blowing (easterly) winds at the equator and east-blowing (westerly) winds at mid-latitudes. Ocean currents also move predictably because of the differential heating, coriolis effect, and winds. The winds and oceans cause heat, cold, and precipitation to occur in predictable places. The Earth’s tilt further causes the sun, wind, and rain patterns to shift northward and southward and create seasons. Consequently, seasonal weather patterns, storms, monsoons, and other weather events become quite predictable—as do the vegetation cover types.

  • 19 - Managing and Mitigating Hydrologic Systems

  • from Part VI - Water
  • Chadwick Dearing Oliver, Yale University, Connecticut, Fatma Arf Oliver
  • Book:
    Global Resources and the Environment
    Published online:
    05 July 2018
    Print publication:
    21 June 2018, pp 298-310

  • Summary

    Sometimes hydrologic systems have been altered with unintended consequences. Agriculture and city drains have sent water to oceans without recharging the groundwater, thus allowing salt water intrusion into coastal aquifers. Large dams often block fish migrations, although fish ladders offer partial solutions; large dams also catch sediment and release sediment-free water which can scour and lower downstream alluvial floodplains. River diversions and irrigation systems sometimes take fish into irrigation ditches unless appropriate guards are installed. Watersheds not managed to protect erosion can cause a reservoir to fill with silt. All above consequences can be partially mitigated, although tradeoffs are incurred. Water shortages are mitigated by conserving water through efficient use; by recycling and treating/reusing water; and by obtaining more water sustainably. Rainwater rooftop harvesting is common in some places; artificial glaciers and tapping glacial lakes can provide water in mountain regions; and desalinization is becoming efficient. Water is occasionally shipped in pipelines. If fossil fuels become less used, some oil pipeline may be used to ship water instead.

Page 36 of 115