Imagine taking a refreshing sip of clean water – a simple act many of us take for granted. Access to clean water is the most basic human right of all. Yet, this fundamental right remains a daily struggle for millions worldwide. Water permeates every aspect of our lives and is receiving world attention as we face escalating threats to our limited water resources due to burgeoning population pressures, life styles and climate change. Water resources planning and management cuts across all sector boundaries and disciplines. Once the domain of civil engineers, today, professionals from all walks of life engage in water- related careers spanning public water supply, agriculture, irrigation, energy, environment and sustainable development. Myriad books and reports on every aspect of water are appearing everywhere. Most are written by water specialists, usually for water specialists. Some, like the media, dwell on the more sensational aspects of increasing floods and droughts, especially as our climate changes.

In writing this book, we are taking a different approach. We want to encourage those who do not wish to become “water experts”, yet would like to go beyond the sensationalist narratives surrounding water to understand better how water affects us all, especially the steps we can take to increase water security. We anticipate our readers will include professionals and students from diverse disciplines who have or are planning careers in the water and water- related sectors. We also write for those stakeholders striving to attain other sustainable development goals (SDGs) in which water plays a part. Our ambition is to cultivate a cross- disciplinary understanding of water's intricate involvement in human activity to help readers align their actions better and create integrated solutions rather than silos and barriers.

We offer an overview of the significant challenges facing every country and describe the work of “water specialists”, which we hope will be accessible and informative to all. We wish to lift the doom and gloom that pervades the water sector by offering solutions, not just problems. There are plenty of innovative actions out there, not just in technology or management fixes, but equally important are changes in how we think about and take care of water. Everyone has a part to play, not just the water specialists.

Throughout most of the twentieth century, water resources planning was mainly in the hands of civil engineers. They planned, designed and built the infrastructure to monitor, store, control and manage water resources. It was essentially a “top- down” process with little stakeholder involvement, and still is in many countries. However, the impacts of water scarcity, increasing demand and competition among water- using sectors and society's growing awareness and interest in the natural environment have meant that many public and private sector organizations now engage in water- related issues and employ people from various disciplines, many of whom may influence decision- making in managing water resources. Each brings specific knowledge and experience to the table.

By definition, when water is scarce, there is not enough to satisfy everyone's needs. This inevitably brings conflicting demands for water from different sectors, making it an area ripe for misunderstanding and dispute over allocations. In such circumstances, it is vital that everyone understands and appreciates the needs of others, recognizes and agrees on priority allocations and knows when to compromise and negotiate trade- offs. Setting policy and decision- making in the water sector has become immensely challenging and complex, requiring knowledge and understanding of biophysical and socioeconomic systems and processes. This is the essence of IWRM, which is at the heart of the 2030 Agenda and SDG 6 (see Section 2.9).

This chapter offers a starting point for individuals who are relatively new to water resources management and would like to understand better and appreciate how others view water resources. We describe the roles of some key professionals involved in water resources planning and management and what water means to them: hydrologists, water resources planners, river engineers, freshwater ecologists, water engineers (supply and wastewater) and irrigation engineers, working in both developed and developing worlds.

Those already involved and perhaps focused on one aspect of water management may also find it helpful to dip into those water sectors with which they may be less familiar but which may impact on their decision- making. It may also benefit those who indirectly influence decision-making as water users to appreciate how others use water and avoid misunderstandings that can and have led to inappropriate plans with serious financial consequences (Perry & Steduto 2017).

“Water, water everywhere, nor any drop to drink” wrote the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1798 in “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”. Such sentiments still reverberate over 200 years later as water has become the centre of world attention as never before. Even in the 1950s, water was reasonably available, with few demands, although some countries were never without severe floods and droughts, particularly in tropical, arid and semi- arid regions. As populations gradually increased and water demands grew, governments responded by building more storage dams and diverting rivers to maintain widespread water availability. However, since the late 1990s, the world has faced a very different future of impending water scarcity (Box 1.1). The global population has expanded rapidly and is expected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050. Innovative technologies have produced step changes in economic growth, prosperity and living standards, mainly across Europe and North America, but to such an extent that water resources are reaching their limits, and technologies can no longer keep pace with demand.

Since the late 1980s, world leaders have been sounding an alarm about an impending water crisis. The World Economic Forum, which provides an overview of shocks and trends from a business perspective every year (from 2012 to 2020), has identified water crises as one of the top five risks with a severe global impact. In 2021, a survey among national leaders from 88 countries across all regions responsible for achieving sustainable water use for over six billion people identified climate change and associated pressures on water supplies and worsening floods and droughts as the highest water- related risks facing their countries (Water Policy Group 2021). Climate change, driven by industrialization, is becoming more visible through frequent and severe floods and droughts. Shocks from international financial turmoil, pandemics (Covid- 19), conflict (in Ukraine and the Middle East) and significant catastrophes like earthquakes have added to the impact on water availability, especially in areas where access to clean drinking water is already limited.

For many people, SDG 6 is still synonymous with Water, Sanitation and Health (WASH), as in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, SDG 6 is much more than this; it covers the full water cycle, whereas the earlier MDGs included only WASH explicitly, and water scarcity implicitly through the water stress indicator. SDG 6 includes many important factors that influence environmental stability, water quality, sustainable water withdrawals, WUE, IWRM (which includes aspects of land management that affect water quality and quantity), protection for water- related ecosystems and the importance of participation and working together to make the best use of scarce resources.

This chapter offers a synthesis and critical review of SDG 6's eight targets. The targets comprise provision of drinking water (6.1), sanitation and hygiene services (6.2), treatment and reuse of wastewater and ambient water quality (6.3), WUE and scarcity (6.4), IWRM, including national and transboundary cooperation (6.5), protection and restoration of water- related ecosystems (6.6), international cooperation and capacity building (6.a) and local participation in water and sanitation management (6.b).

SDG 6 also includes 11 indicators that measure progress towards the targets. Some indicators are well developed and have already proved their usefulness, such as the WASH indicators, which have benefited from data sets established during the MDG period. However, many indicators are still in their infancy, lacking data and monitoring systems and aggregating to national and global levels. Some need further development. Also, few developing countries have the capacity to set up data monitoring, collection and analysis. Nevertheless, despite the teething problems, the indicators collectively represent the most straightforward and standard way to quantify a nation's water security and provide that balance between the many dimensions of water security and the need for simplicity and pragmatism (MacAlister et al. 2023). In 2015, the Integrated Monitoring Initiative for SDG 6 (IMI- SDG 6) instigated a programme to support countries in establishing baseline data, building national ownership, integrating and mainstreaming data collection and analysis and consolidating and sustaining the process.

As we reach the final page, we, the authors, thank you for embarking on this journey towards water security with us. Your dedication to understanding this critical issue fuels our hope for a more sustainable future for our planet and the life it supports.

Throughout this book, we have explored the role of water security in sustainable development and the intricate relationship between water and global challenges. We have learned that water is not just a resource but a critical element at the heart of sustainable development. Its scarcity hinders progress on other pressing issues like climate change, poverty and hunger, biodiversity loss and environmental degradation. We have acknowledged that our leaders have recognized water's critical role through a dedicated goal, SDG 6, within the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and established targets which cover the entire water cycle.

Key learnings and the centrality of water security

We hope this exploration has equipped you with a comprehensive understanding of water security and its interconnectedness with all economic sectors and humankind's aspirations for its future. We delved into SDG 6's specific targets, recognizing its centrality in achieving sustainable development. We have observed the limitations, if not the impossibility, of BAU in achieving these targets. We also explored the ongoing efforts to improve the effectiveness of SDG 6 monitoring frameworks, critically evaluating the challenges associated with monitoring progress towards these targets.

The importance of diverse perspectives in water management became clear, emphasizing collaboration among stakeholders and clear communication as critical tools for addressing global challenges. We learned about the “hardware” and “software” solutions needed for water security, recognizing that tangible infrastructure development and intangible governance reforms are crucial.

The concept of the WEFE nexus (water, energy, food and environment) highlighted the critical links between water and other vital resources. We discussed the need for integrated approaches that consider these interlinkages, thus contributing to and benefiting from accelerated progress on interconnected global issues.

Water security is essential for a healthy planet and prosperity for all

By now, you will understand that water plays a pivotal role in addressing contemporary challenges. Sustainable water- management strategies offer a ripple effect, fostering progress on interconnected issues and leading us towards a more sustainable future. Working together across political and sectoral boundaries is essential for achieving this goal.

Although Chapter 3 paints a gloomy picture of progress with SDG 6, there is growing optimism among the international community, at least, about achieving the targets and reaching a sustainable, water- secure world, although, realistically, this will likely be some (unspecified) time after 2030. There is no shortage of good ideas: responses in policy, institutions and myriad technological and managerial domains show great promise as the world moves towards sustainability. Some are associated with domestic and industrial water use, but most are likely to come from agriculture, where significant water savings are expected from the largest freshwater consumer in many countries. Governments and local communities will need to prioritize their challenges and risks. This will depend upon how water and water- using sectors respond to the challenges at all levels: local, national and international.

This chapter explores some of the critical responses that fall within the responsibility of those working in water resources planning and management. These include adopting inclusive water governance, implementing water- centric integrated solutions at scale, embracing innovative technologies and management practices and investing in long- term sustainability. Of course, many other factors influence water availability and management and fall beyond the influence of ministries and public agencies in charge of water policy and management. Water resource planning occurs within socioeconomic settings and under governance regimes that may facilitate or limit societal capacity to implement them. Other goals must also be reconciled, such as eliminating hunger and sustaining the natural environment. Since Covid- 19, development priorities have focused on health, and following the war in Ukraine, attention has turned towards food security and migration. Other serious challenges are driven by poverty, biodi-versity loss, large- scale environmental degradation, natural disasters and climate change. We explore these and other interconnections in Chapter 5.

Some challenges require practical actions that provide water's “visible” aspects: the “hardware” of water resources development, such as installing taps and toilets, building reservoirs, installing pipelines, drilling boreholes and treating and reusing/ recycling wastewater. Given adequate resources, much of this material progress is achievable in the short term.

From its origins, in the Arab Spring, to its transformation into a protracted war, the Syrian war has brought to the forefront the complex interplay of power dynamics, state interests and security concerns in international relations. It presents a compelling case study for applying realist theory to analyse and better understand the factors that have shaped and determined the course and outcome of the conflict.

In this chapter, I provide a framework – based on realism – to help explain how the structure of the international political system has enabled the Syrian regime to survive. Realism's focus on power within the international political system – states, sovereignty and alliance building – will help the reader gain a better understanding of the factors that have enabled the Syrian regime to endure.

Using realist analysis, we can better understand the implications of the changing world order on the Middle East and, specifically, Syria. The Middle East, as a region of strategic importance, has been directly impacted by shifts in the world order. The transition from bipolarity to unipolarity and the emerging multipolar system have influenced the actions and strategies of global and regional actors. The US, as the dominant power during the unipolar moment in 1990, pursued its interests and intervened in the region, whereas newly rising powers in the emerging multipolar order, such as China, have sought to assert their influence in the Middle East, challenging the dominance of the US and reshaping regional power dynamics. The competing interests, alliances and power struggles that have unfolded in Syria should be understood within the context of our emerging multipolar world order.

We start with an introduction to three approaches to international relations, namely realism, pluralism and globalism.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORIES

Scholars and thinkers have developed competing theories to explain international relations, each offering different perspectives and insights. Among the most prominent theories are realism, pluralism and globalism, which are examined briefly below.

I have drawn upon international relations theory to explain how Syria's regime has survived the past decade. Although unfashionable and somewhat maligned, realism, with its focus on the structure of the international political system, competition among states and the importance of alliances, and emphasis on sovereignty, provides for a compelling explanation. Realism describes and depicts the exercise of power as it is, rather than how it should or could be.

Modern Syria is a small country seemingly of little relevance to the global order. Indeed, it is not a “stand-out” country in the Middle East region, especially when compared to hegemons such as Turkey, Iran, Egypt and Saudi Arabia. However, its recent history has placed it at the crossroads of both regional and global change. Hafez Asad built the Syrian state by capitalizing upon competition among regional powers, such as Iran and Iraq (Karsh 2010), Israel and Palestine (Brand 1990) and Saudi Arabia and Egypt (Schenker & Henderson 2009). In doing so, he secured rent from the Gulf Arab states, led the Steadfastness Front and established enduring relations with Iran. In other words, Syria has been able to leverage, to its advantage, the desire among regional states to dominate the regional balance of power.

Similarly, Asad was able to exploit the Soviet Union's desire to compete with the US's influence in the Middle East. Egypt's peace treaty with Israel in 1979 presented Syria with an opportunity to play upon Soviet weakness and impress upon Moscow its pivotal role in the regional order. As such, Syria's importance to Russia grew, and, a result, Asad's quest to achieve strategic parity with Israel – his own bid to outweigh Tel Aviv – was given a major boost.

A lot has been written over the years about Hafez Asad's pragmatism, guile and statesmanship. It is not relevant to our case study, but one facet of his personality to note was his patience, or at least what appeared to be patience. It is not clear to me whether Asad consciously exercised strategic patience or just refused to act – like a rabbit in the headlights – but the outcome of waiting served him well.

In her excellent book The Wisdom of Syria's Waiting Game, Bente Scheller (2014) describes how the Asads sit tight and wait for the tide of international relations to turn.

The Syrian regime has never ceased governing the state, despite losing territory to opposition groups, including ISIL, which at one point controlled an area roughly the size of Belgium in both Syria and Iraq (Gilsinan 2014), and to external actors, such as Turkey and the US, and ceding ground to Kurdish groups in the northeast. According to international law, the Syrian state has continued to exercise sovereignty over its territory, even when lost, and has represented the entire country in all international organizations, including the UN. Moreover, the Syrian state has continued to staff and manage its diplomatic missions. In other words, although Syria has been mired in conflict for over a decade, the underlying structure of the state has remained intact, unlike in Libya, where there has been state collapse. With the support of key allies, the regime has managed to retain control over not just the government but also over state institutions, even when its authority has been usurped (Phillips 2020).

In this chapter, we account for the resilience of the Syrian regime. We explore two key features of the regime, which have helped it survive regional wars, social unrest, uprisings, revolutions and civil war. First, we examine the foundations of the Syrian state, laid by Hafez Asad. Hafez's vision was to develop a state supported by strong institutions, but not so strong that they could overshadow the leader and his inner circle. Egypt's Mubarak, for example, was made to step down by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The balance Hafez sought proved advantageous to both him and his successor, Bashar Asad. Even when faced with widespread desertions from senior security and military personnel and mass military defections, Bashar could still rely upon support from key institutions, such as the People's Council (Hinnebusch & Imady 2018). The state that Hafez built ensured that the regime's core remained united even when domestic and external pressures threatened its very existence.

Second, despite being a relatively small country, Syria has managed to adapt its foreign policy so that it can survive and even thrive during times of change, such as transitions in the world order. The Syrian state sided with the Soviet Union during the bipolar era, then oriented itself somewhat towards the US during the unipolar period, and has sided with Moscow since 2011.

The Syrian uprising, which began in 2011, started as a peaceful demonstration movement but turned into a protracted armed conflict. Protests in Syria were sparked by the same aspirations that fuelled the broader Arab uprisings: a yearning for political freedom, social justice and an end to autocratic rule. However, the response of the Syrian regime to these peaceful protests was swift and brutal, setting the stage for a shift from peaceful opposition to armed resistance. As the conflict intensified, the influence of armed opposition groups, both formal and informal, grew in significance.

The Syrian conflict did not evolve in a vacuum. Regional powers such as Turkey, Qatar, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq played pivotal roles, each advancing their strategic interests. Their participation in the conflict was driven by a mix of ideological, sectarian and geopolitical motivations.

In this chapter, we look at the wider context of the Arab uprisings and then focus specifically on Syria's experience. We consider the key events that shaped the conflict between 2011 and 2021, which include: Hezbollah's intervention, the use of chemical weapons, the rise of non-state armed actors, Russian military deployment and the fall of Aleppo. The chapter also identifies the key factors that have enabled the Syrian regime to survive, although survival has come at a high cost to regime, people and country, as demonstrated in Chapters 4 and 5. Finally, we focus on how the regime has financed the war through illicit trade and narcotics, which has not only helped it endure but also to chart a diplomatic course back to the Arab League.

THE ARAB UPRISINGS

The Arab uprisings started in Tunisia in December 2010 and quickly spread throughout the Middle East and North Africa (Haas & Lesch 2012). It is instructive to identify the deep-seated socio-economic challenges that primed the region for the uprisings. Many states in the Arab world were, and remain, characterized by high rates of youth unemployment, poverty and economic inequality. Disparities in wealth distribution and a lack of socio-economic mobility had left the populace frustrated and disillusioned. However, these economic grievances were not the only cause for frustration. Rather, they interacted with a second crucial element: political disenfranchisement (Lynch 2012; Roberts et al. 2015).

Against the odds, the Syrian regime of Bashar Asad has survived a decade of conflict, which has seen it pitted against a unique series of popular protests, a region-fuelled armed insurgency, civil war and interventions by both friendly and hostile actors. By all accounts, Asad should have been swept from power or, at the very least, compelled to make significant concessions to the Syrian opposition. Other leaders in the Middle East and North Africa, during the early stages of the Arab uprisings, were forced to flee (Ben Ali, Tunisia) or step down (Hosni Mubarak, Egypt; Saleh, Yemen) or were killed (Gaddafi, Libya). However, not only did he refuse to offer any political concessions but he also chose to militarize his response and pursue the one course of action familiar to the Syrian regime: deploying a mix of ruthless force and deeply cynical guile. In doing so, Asad literally “took no prisoners” and showed his willingness to use chemical weapons and target hospitals, medical centres and schools with “barrel bombs” to terrorize civilians and defeat the array of groups challenging his rule. Asad's response, which had been fashioned by his late father, Syrian President Hafez Asad, has ensured his survival but at an unbearable cost to the country.

In this book, I aim to analyse and explain how the Syrian regime has managed to not only survive the past decade but also – piece by piece – recover territories lost to opposition groups, such as the Islamic Front, Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), while retaining its authority over state institutions and diplomatic missions outside of the country. Of course, the integrity of state institutions has been compromised and circumscribed by parallel institutions set up by the regime, as well as external actors, including Iran, Russia and Turkey. Nevertheless, the regime has maintained a grip on core institutions, which has allowed it to exercise sovereignty both at home and abroad.

The conversation on Syria has changed from one where many Western policy-makers, until August 2015, were convinced that Asad would be swept from power by opposition forces to Gulf Arab state leaders seeking, in 2023, to normalize relations with the regime.