In this chapter and the next, I examine how indie musicians and music scenes have been represented within a selection of films. Indie or alternative pop/rock musical artists not only contribute to film soundtracks; many have also appeared within a range of films. In this sense, they follow in a long tradition of music artists appearing in, and contributing music to, films. The 1950s and 1960s witnessed a particularly notable number of films seeking to exploit the appeal of rock’n’roll music. Elvis Presley was one of the most prominent stars to appear in films, though there were of course many others, including The Beatles and The Rolling Stones. Presley, The Beatles and the Stones were huge international stars when they appeared in films, whereas many indie artists are not: in this and the next chapter I largely discuss artists who do not have a major profile.

The appearance of indie/alternative musicians within films can operate in similar ways to more well-known examples, even though the broader status of such musicians and the connotations of specific artists necessitates that one does not treat them synonymously. While prefigured by many examples including those mentioned above, a trend of music stars appearing in films became particularly notable in the 1980s following the increase in ‘high concept’ film production (Wyatt 1994). ‘High concept’ reflected the growing conglomeration of film studios through placing heightened emphasis on a film’s marketing opportunities; it is, as Wyatt (1994: 13) has written, ‘a striking, easily reducible narrative which also offers a high degree of marketability’. Wyatt considered music to be a crucial aspect of high concept as many such films included musical montages and offered cross-licensing opportunities, so that records could promote films in which they featured, while films could draw attention to any associated soundtrack releases and further promote musical artists. While the music artist in many such instances did not actually appear in the film, some both appeared in films and contributed to soundtrack releases. Madonna would be a good example of a major international artist who acted in several films and also contributed soundtrack material to some of these films, such as Who’s That Girl (Foley, 1987) and Dick Tracy (Beatty, 1990).

In this and the next chapter, I explore more marginal conceptions of indie music, particularly those related to modes of music typically encoded as black. Such conceptions challenge the dominant whiteness of indie music. While there are a range of ethnicities in the US, this chapter will focus specifically on African American filmmaking and music due to the extensive range of music and filmmaking produced by African Americans. As noted in the introduction, indie was originally just a shorthand for ‘independent’ and gradually began to accrue further, often generic, connotations (a process which has also occurred within film). In practice, however – and this applies to both music and film – indie is often used in different ways, and it is still used in some cases merely as an abbreviation of independent. I would stress, then, that it is imperative scholars remain cognizant of the different ways that indie is employed discursively. This does not mean that we must necessarily agree with the ways it is being used; but even if one has a strict working definition, it is important not to lose sight of alternative ways that the term functions in everyday practice. (It is also the case that even if we create a strict working definition then this definition is subject to historical change, indicating a need for at least some openness and flexibility in our understanding of the term.) In short, while dominant ideas of indie refer broadly to alternative modes of guitar rock-pop, there are more marginal conceptions of indie that tend to use ‘indie’ more as an adjectival modifier than as a genre-like noun.

Across a range of American independent films directed by black filmmakers, indie music in its more familiar generic guise does not tend to feature prominently. But if we think about indie more as an economic marker, as well as an adjectival modifier, then ‘indie’ music is a more noticeable presence. Extending the limits of indie in this manner might be considered unhelpful by those who demand a more precise conceptualisation of the term. Furthermore, the term ‘indie’ is not used extensively by those working outside of the indie rock-pop continuum, so some might object to this manoeuvre on the grounds that it does not conform to dominant generic conceptions of indie or to prevalent discursive uses of the term.

Interconnections between indie film and indie music have accelerated because of the increased use of ‘indie’ as a broad music and film descriptor within the US, the continued commercialisation of the indie film and music spheres and the growing importance of niche cultures. This is the case across a range of different types of indie productions, but it applies particularly to the higher end of such filmmaking, including ‘indie’ films released by studio divisions or indie films which contain funding and distribution from studios; it is often within such filmmaking that the presence of indie music tends to be signalled most prominently. Matthew Nicholls has argued that music tends to be foregrounded within American independent films in noticeable ways, and that it is often important for viewers to be aware of the music, which can then cement a film’s indie status:

In the films I have analysed closely, music can be used both very noticeably and in more subtle ways, but I would certainly agree with Nicholls that its use can often strengthen the indie identity of a film: Nicholls (2011: 115) has mentioned how several independent films placed indie music within their trailers, a tactic which underpins an indie status. In studio-backed ‘indie’ films there is a greater tendency for indie music to be highlighted as part of a self-conscious indie aesthetic. As noted, however, if a film is perceived as trying too hard to come across as indie, then it might be considered inauthentic by some. So, while indie music can bolster a film’s indie credentials, such an outcome cannot be guaranteed.

Authenticity is often highly valued within indie cultures, but there is no consensus on how films or music can be considered authentic or not. Such judgements will depend on specific audiences’ broader values and tastes. Whether accepted as authentic or not, indie music – often alongside other indie markers – is frequently employed in films and has the potential to lead to a general perception of such films as non-mainstream, including films released by studios.

Sofia Coppola is a female auteur who has managed to create a distinctive oeuvre over the course of her career. Disputes about Coppola’s privileged position in the industry – she is of course the daughter of Francis Ford Coppola – have tended to overshadow her actual achievements. Such negative dismissals of her advantaged position stem from sexist assumptions about worthiness; many male directors, for example, take advantage of certain privileges but these are rarely scrutinised in the same negative manner as Coppola’s have been. Her films have also been dismissed by some critics for their emptiness; for lingering on pretty images, for example, without any apparent ‘substance’. But as many defenders of Coppola have argued, her films are anything but empty, and have been perceived as comments ‘upon postfeminist concerns about consumption as a “feminine” ideal, and attempts to mirror and reverse macho tropes from the 1960s and 1970s male auteur movement, which includes her father’ (Kennedy 2010: 37). Pam Cook (2009: 36) has noted how her first three features focus on the female rite-of-passage, while Belinda Smaill (2013: 50) has stressed how Coppola tends to examine characters, both male and female, who are in stages of transition. Coppola’s films also tend to linger on experiential moments: while encased within narrative frameworks, they are less concerned with narrative drive than capturing subjective moods in a somewhat impressionistic manner. Her emphasis on mood and emotion is often linked to her visual style: her careful use of colours, framing, location and costume, and inspiration from photography and other visual arts have been noted frequently. In this chapter, however, I want to look at Coppola’s use of music, in particular her use of various indie/alternative music and how this informs her overall aesthetic.

Smaill (151) has drawn attention to Coppola’s ‘strong ties with the independent music scene’: she has directed music videos for acts such as The Flaming Lips and The White Stripes, is married to Thomas Mars, vocalist for French group Phoenix, and uses independent music frequently within her films. Smaill mentions how Coppola’s connections with, and use of, independent music imbues her films with subcultural appeal and contributes to the mood and tone of scenes.

The previous chapter largely focused on modes of indie-rock music within African American filmmaking, highlighting how this unusual practice could delineate offbeat or eccentric black identities. Pariah also featured several other modes of black independent music, including soul, R&B and hip-hop, and therefore points towards how indie music might be considered differently, to be more inclusive of black modes of music. There have been some developments – such as the increased use of terms like alternative R&B and indie hip-hop – which indicate increased attention paid towards non-rock and non-white forms of indie and alternative music.

The annual music Afropunk Festival is representative of a broader acknowledgement of the idea of alternative black music. Initially the festival was mainly concerned with booking punk artists (it was founded by James Spooner and Matthew Morgan). The festival has, however, changed direction since its inception in 2005; in 2008 Spooner left, to be replaced by Jocelyn Cooper, who has steered it in a more commercial direction through forging many partnerships and expanding its musical palette. Originally free, Afropunk Festival started charging admission fees for the first time in 2015 and has grown significantly since its beginnings; while still held in Brooklyn, it has also held several other international Afropunk events in cities including Atlanta, Johannesburg, London and Paris. Rachel Lifter (2020: 109) has argued that whereas Afropunk Festival was originally based around a specific subculture – black punks – it is now more broadly addressing ‘the other black experience’. The event now includes a range of different music, which still includes punk but also features hip-hop, R&B and many other types of music. If the commercial imperatives of the organisers have nudged the festival into slightly more mainstream territory, the roster of artists does nevertheless indicate that the festival is now more interested in alternative and indie modes of various black music than in punk per se. As such, the festival can be considered a very visible, and increasingly international, event at which new, though still marginal, conceptions of indie music are being constructed. Lifter, who focuses primarily on indie fashions, has also argued that Afropunk Festival and its attendant coverage have led to ‘Afro-diasporic blackness’ being ‘inserted into the visual imaginary of twentyfirst century indie’ (Lifter 2020: 105).

Charting a broad overview of historical developments relating to the inclusion of indie music in American indie film is important in terms of establishing indie music’s increased screen value, commercial clout and cultural status. While I am focusing on film/music relations, the use of indie music has risen in screenbased media generally, not just film, including – most prominently – television, advertising and video games. As such, I will refer to other media industries on occasion, specifically television, as many personnel work across film and television (another trend which has become more common due to the heightened convergence between these two industries in more recent times). I will begin this historical sketch in the late 1970s, a ‘pre-indie’ phase that was nonetheless so crucial to the emergent concept of indie that it warrants further discussion.

As mentioned in Chapter 1, punk and post-punk are often linked with the beginnings of a new era for independent music. While some artists had previously released music independently – whether on labels run as small companies or through the private pressing of records – the independent music sector in the late 1970s and early 1980s became particularly important in terms of its scale and its impact on the broader, mainstream industry. Punk and post-punk music was also used in several American films during this period, the majority of which were independent productions, including very low-budget ‘punk’ films as well as more genre-based fare from larger independent companies. Lower budgeted films were being made on a regular basis in this period by small crews: the commitment to rough, unpolished and DIY principles in film mirrored, to a certain extent, similar attitudes amongst some punk musicians. Links between the two forms were strengthened by the fact that punk musicians and music often featured in these films. Ivan Král and Amos Poe’s The Blank Generation (1976), for instance, is a documentary snapshot, without synchronised sound, of music being performed at CGBGs as the punk and new wave movements took off (Blondie, The Ramones, Talking Heads and Patti Smith are among the artists appearing). Amos Poe’s next films were narrative features but still included punk musicians on-screen, including Debbie Harry in both Unmade Beds (1976) and The Foreigner, as well as punk bands The Cramps and The Erasers appearing in The Foreigner (1978), while John Lurie and Lydia Lunch both appeared in Subway Riders (1981).

This chapter focuses on grunge and riot grrrl, two modes of punk-inspired indie and alternative rock that emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These movements demonstrate the continuing influence of punk, both in terms of sounds and attitudes, and both connect to issues that have been frequently addressed within indie cultures. In the case of grunge following its commercial breakthrough, questions about retaining anti-mainstream values in a market that was seeking to ‘co-opt’ alternative culture were regularly voiced. Riot grrrl, meanwhile, was a movement that stressed gender issues and sexism within indie music scenes. While it was much more opposed to engagement with mainstream media than many grunge acts were, and therefore at the time of its emergence in the early 1990s was far less popular than grunge, its influence has continued to grow over the years and has inspired a number of films, some of which are discussed in this chapter.

GRUNGE AND MASS MEDIA

While punk continued to influence various areas of music culture throughout the 1980s, the early 1990s witnessed a resurgence of a new form of punk music, grunge, which was commonly perceived as a merging of punk sounds with influences from metal. In this section, I want to focus on how grunge, which would eventually break into the mainstream, led to vociferous discussions around well-worn debates in indie music circles, such as ‘selling out’ and mass media’s detrimental effects upon the integrity of previously niche subcultures. I will commence this discussion through analysis of the independent documentary on grunge, Hype! (Pray, 1996), for even though this book largely focuses on fiction films, this documentary on grunge highlights such issues extremely prominently, albeit in ways that I will argue are problematic.

Hype! focuses on the Seattle music scene, particularly the grunge phenomenon, but it critiques the mass media reporting of the scene and purports to offer a more accurate overview of Seattle’s music culture in the 1990s. As mentioned in Chapter 2, the huge success of Nirvana’s ‘Smells Like Teen Spirit’ single and Nevermind album in 1991 elevated music that had emerged from punk/indie scenes to unprecedented levels, both in terms of sales and media coverage.

Released in 2010, Scott Pilgrim Versus the World (Wright) illustrates how indie music can be used in a film to both aid marketing and strengthen a film’s indie credentials. Based on a Canadian indie comic, the film included characters playing in an indie-rock band, performing songs written by Beck, with a soundtrack featuring an extensive amount of indie-rock music by bands such as Broken Social Scene, Beachwood Sparks and Black Lips. These elements were used to promote the film to its target youth demographic, and the existing appeal of both indie music and the indie comics it adapted were considered hooks which might encourage audiences to see the film. Scott Pilgrim Versus the World points to both the risks and potential benefits of such a strategy. Its aim of targeting existing indie music and comic fans was supplemented by social media advertising, where it was hoped that younger social media users would share content to further promote the film. Its initial box-office performance was, however, disappointing. Although the film was discussed and shared heavily across social media sites, some marketers thought that it was being shared by a limited community and creating, according to marketing agent David Berkowitz, an ‘echo chamber effect’ (Friedman 2010). Since its release, though, it has continued to generate cult interest and further revenue, with its soundtrack a prime factor in its continued relevance (a tenth anniversary soundtrack edition was released in 2020 in variant-coloured discs). As such, it points to how targeting indie fans in this manner can be risky for larger-budgeted films if they do not appeal beyond their core target demographic. The continued interest in the film, however, also emphasises how a niche fanbase might sustain interest in specific films and spread awareness of them to newer generations.

Scott Pilgrim Versus the World connects to several issues that will be examined in this book, including the licensing of indie music within indie films and the representation of both indie performers and indie music scenes. Yet, as a film which cost around $60 million and which was produced and distributed by Universal, it also represents the more commercialised realm of ‘indie’ filmmaking, a realm that some would not consider authentically ‘indie’.

Authorship is a long-standing, albeit often controversial, lens through which films can be approached and read, as well as a concept that aids in the marketing and promotion of some films. The author figure tends to be more overtly present in various discourses related to American independent cinema – such as criticism, theory, promotion – than it does in Hollywood cinema. This is not to argue that authorship is ignored within Hollywood cinema but that, relatively speaking, it is more prominent within the sphere of American indie cinema. Michael Z. Newman (2017: 28–9), for example, has argued that independent cinema is often distinguished from Hollywood cinema through discourses that stress the greater autonomy of the former in contrast to the latter, and that the figure of the auteur is a prominent filter through which such autonomy is constructed. For Newman, this does not necessarily reflect the actual, material differences between independent and Hollywood production (spheres that can often overlap), instead referring to the ways in which distinctions between these spheres are imagined.

Authorship has traditionally focused on visual style rather than the soundtrack. While some of the more radical approaches to the soundtrack have previously gained attention due to their links with director-authors – including Eisenstein and Godard – attention towards how auteurs use music distinctively is a relatively recent development. A key piece in establishing this line of study is Claudia Gorbman’s ‘Auteur Music’, in which she argued that some directors’ use of music can constitute part of their directorial style: ‘music participates forcefully in what used to be called, in the simpler days of auteursim, the director’s worldview’ (Gorbman 2007: 150). This article was symptomatic of a burgeoning interest in auteurism and music, which stimulated further such investigations (e.g. Wierzbicki 2012, Ashby 2013). Gorbman calls directors with a distinctive musical style mélomanes (‘music lovers’) and argues that this is a relatively recent trend (beginning around the 1960s). While she admits that directors who started making films earlier – such as John Ford and Alfred Hitchcock – often used music in interesting ways, she sees the beginning of a new kind of music-obsessed director emerging in the work of directors such as Stanley Kubrick and Jean-Luc Godard.

The central question of this chapter can be stated simply: how do we as critics and students of media understand the relationship between sound and image as it occurs in the video-game environment? A well-established body of literature exists analysing the role film music plays in cinematic storytelling, but the problem of game music – as well as, for that matter, the ontology of the game image itself – presents a surprising number of challenges for the would-be analyst. At first glance, the crucial problem seems to centre on the fact that a game is played rather than viewed, and the difference that interactivity makes in the player's relationship to the work in question would seem to provide a logical starting point for analysis. The problem, however, is that interactivity as such is notoriously difficult to define, and drawing conclusions about the expressive content of a work based on this approach rapidly advances towards the tautological. In cinema, the equivalent approach might hold that studying film music must begin with understanding the audience as opposed to situating music within the semiotic apparatus of the film itself, and it is not clear which approach is the most productive. In any case, applying either an audience-oriented or film-oriented approach requires certain ontological assumptions about the relationship between the constituent parts of the media event. Specifically, creating predictive or general rules about how music in film can express meaning or emotion requires a stable configuration of the components being analysed, and in turning the same analysis to video games where this configuration is constantly changing, it becomes clear that new strategies must be adopted.