In the Phenomenology of Spirit, Hegel places the concept of utility at the centre of his analysis of the Enlightenment period. Utility does not appear merely as a criterion of individual action, but describes a social context of mutual support, realized in a collective referred to by Hegel as a ‘troop’ (Trupp). In Adorno and Horkheimer’s critique of a reason fixated on utility, the Hegelian image of the ‘troop’ came to symbolize a repressive equality which removes the freedom of the individual and seals the failure of enlightenment. In contrast, this article demonstrates that Hegel’s concept of utility cannot be reduced to an attitude which instrumentalizes everything and everyone. In fact, utility refers to a mode of interaction which also takes account of the heterogeneity of each individual. Drawing on Hegel and going beyond his analysis, the article develops a post-Hegelian concept of utility as a formation of social practices that neither instrumentalizes people, nor simply represents an instantiation of social freedom, but rather establishes a constitutive relation between caring for oneself and being useful to others. From this perspective, the concept of utility is not only part of the problem of enlightenment, but also contributes to the endeavour to which Adorno and Horkheimer committed themselves: to work towards an affirmative understanding of enlightenment.

Objectives/Goals: Evaluate the impact of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) on neonatal brain development using magnetoencephalography (MEG) and correlate findings with NICU Network Neurobehavioral scale (NNNS) scores at 1 month Methods/Study Population: In this prospective cohort study, we will enroll 30 participants, consisting of 15 neonates diagnosed with IUGR and 15 healthy controls, matched by gestational age, from the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. We will perform MEG scans at three key developmental stages: during fetal life, at 1 month, and at 3 months of age and a Bayley IV exam at 12 months of age. The NNNS assessments will be conducted at the 1-month visit to evaluate neurobehavioral outcomes. All MEG data will be synchronized with clinical evaluations and maternal health records to ensure comprehensive analysis. Results/Anticipated Results: We anticipate that the study will reveal significant differences in brain maturation and neural activity patterns between IUGR-affected infants and healthy controls. Specifically, we expect to find altered neural connectivity and delayed maturation in the delta and theta frequency bands during the early neonatal period in the IUGR group. These anticipated neuroimaging findings will be correlated with NNNS scores to assess functional implications of the observed brain activity differences. If our hypotheses are confirmed, the study will provide robust biomarkers for early identification of neurodevelopmental delays in IUGR-affected infants, paving the way for targeted early interventions. Discussion/Significance of Impact: This study could significantly enhance early detection and intervention strategies for IUGR, potentially reducing long-term neurodevelopmental challenges and improving clinical outcomes

The basic local independence model (BLIM) is a probabilistic model developed in knowledge space theory (KST). Recently, Stefanutti, de Chiusole, et al. (2020, Psychometrika 85, 684–715) proposed the polytomous local independence model (PoLIM), which is an extension of the BLIM to items with more than two response alternatives (polytomous items). In a Commentary to this paper, Chiu et al. (2023, Psychometrika 88, 656–671) claimed that (i) the BLIM is just a deterministic input noisy AND-gate (DINA) model where every item has a single skill and, as a consequence of this, (ii) the “PoLIM is simply a paraphrase of a DINA model in cognitive diagnosis (CD) for polytomous items” (p. 656). This rejoinder shows that such statements are invalid and totally misleading. Its aim is to clarify the nature of the relationship between the BLIM and the DINA, as well as that between the PoLIM and the Polytomous DINA. It builds upon formal results by Heller, et al. (2015, Psychometrika 80(4), 995–1019) on the intimate relation between KST and CD notions, and shows that the BLIM/PoLIM may be conceived as marginal models for whole classes of CD models.

Knowledge space theory (KST) structures are introduced within item response theory (IRT) as a possible way to model local dependence between items. The aim of this paper is threefold: firstly, to generalize the usual characterization of local independence without introducing new parameters; secondly, to merge the information provided by the IRT and KST perspectives; and thirdly, to contribute to the literature that bridges continuous and discrete theories of assessment. In detail, connections are established between the KST simple learning model (SLM) and the IRT General Graded Response Model, and between the KST Basic Local Independence Model and IRT models in general. As a consequence, local independence is generalized to account for the existence of prerequisite relations between the items, IRT models become a subset of KST models, IRT likelihood functions can be generalized to broader families, and the issues of local dependence and dimensionality are partially disentangled. Models are discussed for both dichotomous and polytomous items and conclusions are drawn on their interpretation. Considerations on possible consequences in terms of model identifiability and estimation procedures are also provided.

The present work explores the connections between cognitive diagnostic models (CDM) and knowledge space theory (KST) and shows that these two quite distinct approaches overlap. It is proved that in fact the Multiple Strategy DINA (Deterministic Input Noisy AND-gate) model and the CBLIM, a competence-based extension of the basic local independence model (BLIM), are equivalent. To demonstrate the benefits that arise from integrating the two theoretical perspectives, it is shown that a fairly complete picture on the identifiability of these models emerges by combining results from both camps. The impact of the results is illustrated by an empirical example, and topics for further research are pointed out.

Hypertension and depression are increasingly common noncommunicable diseases in Ghana and worldwide, yet both are poorly controlled. We sought to understand how healthcare workers in rural Ghana conceptualize the interaction between hypertension and depression, and how care for these two conditions might best be integrated. We conducted a qualitative descriptive study involving in-depth interviews with 34 healthcare workers in the Kassena-Nankana districts of the Upper East Region of Ghana. We used conventional content analysis to systematically review interview transcripts, code the data content and analyze codes for salient themes. Respondents detailed three discrete conceptual models. Most emphasized depression as causing hypertension: through both emotional distress and unhealthy behavior. Others posited a bidirectional relationship, where cardiovascular morbidity worsened mood, or described a single set of underlying causes for both conditions. Nearly all proposed health interventions targeted their favored root cause of these disorders. In this representative rural Ghanaian community, healthcare workers widely agreed that cardiovascular disease and mental illness are physiologically linked and warrant an integrated care response, but held diverse views regarding precisely how and why. There was widespread support for a single primary care intervention to treat both conditions through counseling and medication.

Stars with about 45 to 80% the mass of the Sun, so-called K dwarf stars, have previously been proposed as optimal host stars in the search for habitable extrasolar worlds. These stars are abundant, have stable luminosities over billions of years longer than Sun-like stars, and offer favourable space environmental conditions. So far, the theoretical and experimental focus on exoplanet habitability has been on even less massive, though potentially less hospitable red dwarf stars. Here we present the first experimental data on the responses of photosynthetic organisms to a simulated K dwarf spectrum. We find that garden cress Lepidium sativum under K-dwarf radiation exhibits comparable growth and photosynthetic efficiency as under Solar illumination on Earth. The cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis sp. CCMEE 029 exhibits significantly higher photosynthetic efficiency and culture growth under K dwarf radiation compared to Solar conditions. Our findings of the affirmative responses of these two photosynthetic organisms to K dwarf radiation suggest that exoplanets in the habitable zones around such stars deserve high priority in the search for extrasolar life.

Sorption of aniline and its derivatives by montmorillonite substituted by cations of widely different acidity depends upon the polarizing power of the interlayer cations. Infra-red spectra indicate that the anilines are mostly bound to the interlayer cations through water molecules, except in Cs montmorillonite, where bonding to the oxygen surfaces of the alumino-silicate sheets seems to predominate. Anilines are weak bases, which compete with the oxygen surfaces for protons of acidic interlayer water. Consequently, the tendency of anilines to act as proton donors in the clay interlayers increases with the polarizing power of the exchangeable cation. The concept of ‘basic’ water is introduced to account for some of the features of the spectra of Cs montmorillonite treated with the organic ligands.

Mössbauer spectroscopy of dioctahedral phyllosilicates showed that on dehydroxylation iron which originally occupied M(2) and M(l) sites became, respectively, 5- and 6-coordinated. The 6-coordinated sites are very distorted. No migration of cations occurs in the course of heating the specimens for 1–3 hr at 600°–700°C.

By using a combination of several physicochemical methods, different successive stages of the dehydroxylation process could be distinguished: (1) migration of protons; (2) localized dehydroxylation of individual associations without significant change in the overall configuration of the octahedral sheets; and (3) loss of most of the hydroxyl groups with concomitant changes in the cell dimensions. Penetration of Li into the octahedral sheets does not affect the course of the reaction, but reduces the dehydroxylation temperature and the stability of the products.

Dehydroxylation was preceded by or associated with the oxidation of any divalent iron present. Fe3+ derived from Fe2+ was indistinguishable by Mössbauer spectroscopy from iron initially present in the trivalent form. High concentrations of Fe lower the dehydroxylation temperature and reduce the stability of the dehydroxylate to the extent that partial disintegration may precede complete dehydroxylation.

The reaction products obtained when montmorillonites react with potassium halide at elevated temperatures, which were described in a previous publication, are further characterized. On the basis of their X-ray powder diffraction patterns, i.r. spectra, CEC and chemical composition they could be regarded as montmorillonite-illite interstratifications. Changes in morphology of various montmorillonites heated with and without K halide are related to the size, charge and position of interlayer cations. Scanning electron-micrographs of samples heated with KBr resemble those of well-crystallized illite. It is speculated that reactions of clay minerals with halides or other proton acceptors may account for some diagenetic processes in nature, e.g. the conversion of montmorillonite to illite on deep burial.

Fe3+ ions in palygorskite occupy sites at the edges and in the interior of the alumino-silicate chains. The Mössbauer parameters of the doublets associated with Fe3+ ions in edge sites indicate that the sites have a regular 6 coordination. Fe3+ ions in the interior of the chains occupy M(1) sites in three of the samples examined and M(2) sites in the fourth. Fe3+ ions in edge positions of palygorskite become 5-coordinated when water is lost on heating. They maintain this coordination on dehydroxylation, probably by cross-linking of the chains. The temperatures at which changes occur in the X-ray powder diffraction patterns and the Mössbauer and infrared (IR) spectra differ from sample to sample. The intermediate stages observed also vary, either due to different reaction paths or to different stabilities of the intermediate phases. The deduced distribution of cations in the octahedral sheets is in good qualitative agreement with the observed IR hydroxyl absorptions.

Two different types of interstratified illite-smectite are found in a section of Paleozoic sediments in the Negev, Israel. One of these is detectable only by a decrease in peak width and a concomitant increase in symmetry of the 10 Å peak on glycolation. This material is regarded as illite, randomly interstratified with about 20 per cent expanding layers.

Mössbauer spectra of 15 smectites were investigated. In these samples, ferric iron occupies both M(1) and M(2) octahedral sites, the distribution being partly determined by the relative covalency of the bonds formed.

The quadrupole splittings are linearly related to b−3. They show that Fe3+ octahedra are much more distorted in montmorillonite and beidellite than in nontronite and volkonskoite and that M(1) sites are more prone to change than M(2). Ferrous iron occurs in relatively undistorted octahedra in some otherwise distorted octahedral sheets and vice versa.

Hydrazine and dithionite, both of which are strong reducing agents, react differently with various dioctahedral smectites. Both the nature of the reducing agent and the structure of the clay affect the course of the reaction. Hydrazine reduces octahedral Fe3+ efficiently if the mineral has a low tetrahedral charge. The reducing action of dithionite does not depend upon the charge.

The results obtained by different physical methods of investigation suggest that reduction of iron is associated with protonation of an adjacent OH group. The Fe2+ formed is readily re-oxidised but the structural changes occurring on reduction are reversible only when Al-OH-Fe, but not when Fe-OH-Fe associations are involved. Reaction mechanisms are proposed and changes in the distribution of iron in the octahedral sites are discussed.