Study abroad is typically viewed as a catalyst for pronunciation learning because it affords learners both massive amounts of L2 input and abundant opportunities for meaningful L2 use. Yet, even in such an environment, there is substantial variability in learning trajectories and outcomes. The nature of the target structure is also a powerful determinant of learning; some structures seem to develop effortlessly, whereas others do not improve much at all. Additionally, study abroad research brings to light the important issue of speaker identity, as learners often make decisions about how they want to sound and what pronunciation features they will adopt. This chapter examines developmental time frames, trajectories, and turning points in the phonetics and phonology of L2 learners in a study abroad context. We also describe how learners acquire the regional pronunciation variants of their host communities considering the phonetics of the target feature and learners’ attitudes and beliefs. We argue that study abroad should be situated within a dynamic, longitudinal, and context-dependent view of phonetic and phonological learning.

Despite the undeniable ‘treatification’ of international investment law, that should not lead one to the erroneous assumption that, as a direct consequence of this, other sources of law and custom in particular, become gradually and increasingly more irrelevant in this particular filed of international law. Contrarily, customary rules remain of fundamental importance in what has been called ‘the age of treatification of international investment law’. Furthermore, custom, both in its primary rule and secondary rule incarnation, potentially will even further grow in its importance to international investment law and arbitration, considering the seemingly increasing trend of what may be dubbed if not a ‘de-treatification’ then at least a decrease in the number of treaties (or treaty ratifications) relating to international investment law. Even with the justified criticisms about false narratives and the creation of custom being a reflection of prior and current power structures, the study of custom and its function across all stages of its life-cycle has a lot to yield. Both these criticisms and the general academic inquiries into the lacunae of custom (at the identification as well as the interpretation/content-determination stages) contribute to the gradual refinement of our understanding of how custom works, how it is used, what gaps it has and how it can adapt to modern challenges and new circumstances.

The Chorzow Factory case serves as a means for tribunals and academics to make different kinds of assertions regarding the application of customary international law (CIL) and the principle of full reparation. Internationally, both tribunals and academics argue that this case is CIL, and that it serves as evidence for the principle of full reparation at the moment of assessing the damage in a case. Against this background, this chapter demonstrates that the aforementioned affirmations are not exact and that have been taken out of context by some parts of academia and tribunals themselves. Firstly, the Chorzow ruling does not cite the legal sources that, without doubt, would allow them to affirm the formerly made statements. Secondly, the ruling did not categorically say that CIL had been used as a source, as has been said by many investment arbitral awards. Thirdly, the context in which the decision was awarded is overlooked. In light of the former, it will be shown that most of the decisions of the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) were made by way of general statements, without citing the direct sources that established such rules.