This systematic review aimed to quantify the prevalence of substance use among female sex workers (FSWs) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

Design: The review protocol was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42021242048). We searched Ovid, PubMed and Web of Science databases for peer-reviewed, quantitative studies from inception to 6th March 2023. Study designs included: cross-sectional, case–control, cohort study, case series analysis, or experimental studies. Study quality was assessed using the Centre for Evidence-Based Management (CEBM) Critical Appraisal Tool.

Setting: FSWs in LMICs.

Participants/Inclusion criteria: any measure of prevalence or incidence of substance use (not alcohol or tobacco) among FSWs aged 18+ years.

Measurements: A narrative synthesis was conducted across all studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Pooled prevalence estimates for ‘ever’ and ‘recent’ drug use were calculated using a random effects model.

3135 papers were identified; 161 papers reporting on 102 studies with 167,333 FSWs from 39 LMICs met the inclusion criteria. 26 studies scored high, 61 scored moderate, and 15 scored in the lower quality range. Only 4/102 studies used a validated measurement tool to assess levels of substance use dependence. The mean age of study participants was 28.9 years (SD 7.7). The pooled prevalence for recent (past month to past year) substance use among FSWs in LMICs is: illicit drug use 29% (95% CI: 14–34%), cannabis 20% (95% CI: 8–30%), cocaine 21% (95% CI: 9–32%), amphetamine type stimulants 19% (95% CI: 12–26%), opioids 8% (95% CI: 4–12%), sedatives and sleeping pills 6% (95% CI: 0–12%), inhalants 4% (95% CI: –4–12%), hallucinogens 0% (95% CI: 0–0%), and recent drug use during sex work 42% (95% CI: 15%–68%). Only 5/102 studies reported a substance use intervention. Key study limitations include the lack of a validated measurement tool by most studies (96%) meaning it was not possible to distinguish between any drug use vs. harmful drug use. The criminalisation of drug use may have led to under-reporting and an underestimate of true substance use prevalences.

FSWs in LMICs report a high prevalence of recent drug use – including during sex work – with cannabis, cocaine and amphetamine type stimulants the most commonly used. There is an urgent need for effective low-cost substance use interventions. Future studies should use validated substance-use measurement tools to assess the burden of substance use disorders.

Due to its widespread use in the sex work industry, female sex workers (FSWs) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are at high risk of harmful alcohol use and associated adverse health outcomes. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to provide an estimate of the prevalence of harmful alcohol use among FSWs in LMICs and to examine associations with common health and social concerns.

The review protocol was registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42021237438. We searched three electronic databases for peer-reviewed, quantitative studies from inception to 24th February 2021.

Inclusion criteria:

• • Any measure of prevalence or incidence of alcohol use among FSWs aged 18 years or older.

• • Countries defined as LMIC in accordance with the World Bank income groups 2019.

• • Study designs: cross-sectional survey, case–control study, cohort study, case series analysis, or experimental study with baseline measures for alcohol use.

Pooled prevalence estimates were calculated for:

1. 1. Any hazardous/harmful/dependent alcohol use

2. 2. Harmful/dependent alcohol use only, both overall and by region

3. 3. Daily alcohol use.

4. 4. Meta-analyses examined associations between harmful alcohol use and violence, condom use, HIV/STIs, mental health problems and other drug use.

In total, 435 papers were identified. After screening, 99 papers reporting on 87 unique studies with 51,904 participants from 32 LMICs met the inclusion criteria. Study designs included cross-sectional (n = 89), cohort (n = 6) and experimental (n = 4). Overall, 5 scored as high quality, 79 studies scored as moderate and 15 scored as weak quality. Twenty-nine papers reporting on 22 unique studies used validated alcohol use tools including AUDIT, CAGE and WHO CIDI. The pooled prevalence of any hazardous/harmful/dependent alcohol use was 41% (95% CI: 31–51%), and of daily alcohol use was 26% (95% CI: 17–36%). There was variation in harmful alcohol use by global region (Sub-Saharan Africa: 38%; South Asia/Central Asia/ East Asia and Pacific: 47% and Latin America and the Caribbean:44%). Harmful alcohol use was significantly associated with inconsistent condom use (pooled unadjusted RR: 1.65; 95% CI: 1.01–2.67), STIs (pooled unadjusted OR: 1.29; 95% CI 1.15–1.46); and other drug use (pooled unadjusted OR of 2.44; 95% CI 1.24–4.80), but not with HIV, violence or mental health problems.

We found a high burden of problem alcohol use and daily alcohol use among FSWs in LMICs. Harmful drinking was associated with HIV risk factors such as inconsistent condom use, STIs and other drug use. There is an urgent need for tailored interventions for FSWs in LMICs that address alcohol use as well as the associated sex work risk environment

Female sex workers (FSWs) are at high risk of mental health problems and suicide risk. Few longitudinal studies have examined risk factors for poor mental health among FSWs.

Maisha Fiti is a longitudinal study among FSWs randomly selected from Sex Worker Outreach Programme clinics across Nairobi. Behavioural-biological survey data were collected at baseline (n = 1003, June–December 2019), midline (n = 366) (Jan–March 2020) and endline (n = 877) (June 2020–Jan 2021). Women reporting mental health problems were offered counselling services. Multivariable mixed logistic regression models were used to examine factors associated with mental health problems and suicidal behaviours.

There was a decline in the proportion of women reporting any mental health problem (depression and/or anxiety and/or PTSD) (baseline: 29.9%, midline: 13.3%, endline: 11.8%). There was strong evidence that any mental health problem was associated with recent hunger (aOR 1.99; 95% CI 1.37–2.88) and recent violence from non-intimate partners (2.23; 95% CI 1.55–3.19). Recent suicidal behaviour prevalence was similar across survey rounds (baseline: 10.2%; midline: 10.2%; endline: 10.4%), and was associated with recent violence from non-intimate partners (aOR 1.96; 95% CI 1.31–2.95), recent hunger (aOR 1.69; 95% CI 1.15–2.47) and having an additional employment to sex work (aOR 1.50; 95% CI 1.00–2.23).

Our study found a decline in mental health problems but high levels of persistent suicidal behaviours among FSWs. Syndemic risk factors including food insecurity and violence were longitudinally associated with mental health problems and recent suicidal behaviours. There is a need for accessible mental health services for FSWs, alongside structural interventions addressing poverty and violence.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), poverty, violence and harmful alcohol/substance are associated with poor mental health outcomes in the general population. These risks are likely to be exacerbated among Female Sex Workers (FSWs), however there are few studies examining risks factors for mental health problems among FSWs. We examine the prevalence and correlates of common mental health problems including suicidal behaviour among FSWs in Kenya.

Maisha Fiti is a longitudinal study among FSWs randomly selected from Sex Worker Outreach Programme (SWOP) clinics across Nairobi. Baseline data were collected from June-December 2019. Mental health problems were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) for depression, the Generalised Anxiety Disorder tool (GAD-7) for anxiety, and the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ-17) for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Recent suicidal behaviour was defined as reported suicide attempt or suicidal ideation in the past 30 days. Other measurement tools included the WHO Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) score, WHO Violence Against Women questionnaire, and the WHO ASSIST tool (to measure harmful alcohol/substance use in the past 3 months). Descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression were conducted in Stata 16.1.

Of 1039 eligible FSWs, 1003 FSWs took part in the study (response rate: 96%) with a mean age of 33.7 years. The prevalence of moderate/severe depression was 23.2% (95%CI: 20.7–25.9%), moderate/severe anxiety 11.0% (95%CI: 9.3–13.1%), PTSD 14.0% (95% CI: 12.2–16.5%) and recent suicidal behaviour 10.2% (95%CI: 8.5–12.2%) (2.6% suicide attempt; 10.0% suicidal ideation). Among women with any mental health problem 63.0% also had a harmful alcohol/substance use problem. One in four women (25%; 95%CI: 22.5–27.8%) had depression and/or anxiety and this was independently associated with higher ACE scores, hunger (skipped a meal in last week due to financial difficulties), death of a child, perceived sex work stigma and recent sexual/physical violence. PTSD was associated with higher ACE scores, hunger, increased STI prevalence (chlamydia trachomatis) and recent violence. Recent suicidal behaviour was associated with higher ACE scores, low literacy, hunger, and recent violence. Mental health problems and suicidal behaviour were less prevalent among women reporting social support.

The high burden of mental problems among FSWs indicates a need for accessible services tailored for FSWs alongside broader structural interventions addressing poverty, harmful alcohol/substance use and violence. High rates of ACEs among this population indicates the need to consider early childhood and family interventions to prevent poor mental health outcomes.

Funding: Medical Research Council and the UK Department of International Development

This study examines the prevalence and associations between recent violence experience, mental health and physical health impairment among Female Sex Workers (FSWs) in north Karnataka, India.

Multi-morbidity, in particular the overlap between physical and mental health problems, is an important global health challenge to address. FSWs experience high levels of gender-based violence, which increases the risk of poor mental health, however there is limited information on the prevalence of physical health impairments and how this interacts with mental health and violence.

We conducted secondary analysis of cross-sectional quantitative survey data collected in 2016 as part of a cluster-RCT with FSWs called Samvedana Plus. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to examine associations between physical impairment, recent (past 6 months) physical or sexual violence from any perpetrator, and mental health problems measured by PHQ-2 (depression), GAD-2 (anxiety), any common mental health problem (depression or anxiety), self-harm ever and suicidal ideation ever.

511 FSWs participated. One fifth had symptoms of depression (21.5%) or anxiety (22.1%), one third (34.1%) reported symptoms of either, 4.5% had ever self-harmed and 5.5% reported suicidal ideation ever. Over half (58.1%) reported recent violence. A quarter (27.6%) reported one or more chronic physical impairments. Mental health problems such as depression were higher among those who reported recent violence (29%) compared to those who reported no recent violence (11%). There was a step-wise increase in the proportion of women with mental health problems as the number of physical impairments increased (e.g. depression 18.1% no impairment; 30.2% one impairment; 31.4% ≥ two impairments). In adjusted analyses, mental health problems were significantly more likely among women who reported recent violence (e.g. depression and violence AOR 2.42 (1.24–4.72) with rates highest among women reporting recent violence and one or more physical impairments (AOR 5.23 (2.49–10.97).

Our study suggests multi-morbidity of mental and physical health problems is a concern amongst FSWs and is associated with recent violence experience. Programmes working with FSWs need to be mindful of these intersecting vulnerabilities, inclusive of women with physical health impairments and include treatment for mental health problems as part of core-programming.

Samvedana Plus was funded by UKaid through Department for International Development as part of STRIVE (structural drivers of HIV) led by London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and the What Works to Prevent Violence Against Women and Girls Global Programme led by South African Medical Research Council