It is conventional to assume that there was an unbreachable gulf between Robert Lowell and the experimental, “raw” poets associated with the broad avant-garde movement known as “The New American Poetry”; that he and poets like Allen Ginsberg, Frank O’Hara, Charles Olson, and their descendants operated in almost wholly separate universes. However, this chapter argues that Lowell’s relationship with these poets and their work is more extensive, complex, and messy than has often been assumed. As it demonstrates, Lowell’s famous transformation that led to the publication Life Studies was profoundly shaped by his encounter with the avant-garde tradition. Although Lowell’s division of the poetry world into two starkly opposed camps (the “cooked” and the “raw”) quickly became gospel, Lowell actually believed his own new mode to be a bold compromise between the two poles – an attempt to split the difference between "cooked" and "raw," New Critical formalism and the New American Poetry.

This chapter introduces the controversial movement known as Language poetry, one of the most significant, influential avant-garde poetry movement of the later twentieth century. It traces Language poetry’s origins and examines its theoretical, aesthetic, and political commitments. The chapter explores the fierce debates surrounding Language poetry’s rise and its institutionalization and canonization, and its outsized influence. It discusses some of the major features of Language poetics, including its radical experimentation with form and its postmodernist attitudes about the nature of language and the self. The chapter looks closely at work by a number of leading practitioners of Language poetry, including Charles Bernstein, Ron Silliman, Lyn Hejinian, Rae Armantrout, and Susan Howe.

This chapter addresses the flowering of African American poetry that occurs from 1945 to 1970 against the backdrop of the Civil Rights Movement and in the context of a period of tumultuous change in the history of race relations in America. The chapter discusses how poets such as Robert Hayden, Gwendolyn Brooks, and Amiri Baraka grapple in various ways with fraught questions about aesthetics, race, identity, and politics. The chapter examines the emergence of the influential and controversial movement known as the Black Arts Movement (led by poets including Baraka, Sonia Sanchez, and Nikki Giovanni) in the context of the turbulent racial violence and social justice movements of the 1960s.

This chapter focuses on the arrival of a new dominant mode in American poetry of the 1970s – accessible, free-verse, first-person lyric poems that are often autobiographical. The chapter links this new mainstream style to the emergence of a new force in American poetry: the rise of creative writing as an academic discipline and MFA graduate writing programs as a new institutional setting for the teaching and circulation of poetry. The chapter focuses on some of the shared characteristics of this mode as well as the variety of poetry produced during this period by looking at a range of poets, including Stanley Kunitz, Mary Oliver, Robert Hass, Louise Gluck, and Carolyn Forché.

This chapter explores some of the new developments, trends, and movements that have characterized contemporary American poetry in the period since 2000, a period in which poetry grapples with a tumultuous, rapidly changing culture and continues to become increasingly diverse. The chapter focuses on three of the most important developments: the collapse of the old binary opposition between mainstream and experimental and the emergence of a new hybrid mode; a new openness to remix, sampling, and the use of found language and documentary materials in poetry associated with movements such as Conceptual poetry and Flarf, which can be seen, in part, as a response to the rise of the digital age and new questions about originality and appropriation it has ushered in; and a resurgence of politically engaged, formally adventurous poetry, especially by poets of color, in the era of Obama and Trump. The chapter focuses on representative poets, including Jorie Graham, Dean Young, Kenneth Goldsmith, Tracy K. Smith, Robin Coste Lewis, Claudia Rankine, Ross Gay, Danez Smith, and Terrance Hayes.

This chapter discusses the story of Black Mountain College and its history and far-reaching influence. The chapter focuses on the work of key poets associated with Black Mountain College, including Charles Olson and his landmark essay “Projective Verse,” Robert Creeley, Robert Duncan, and Denise Levertov, and examines their characteristic formal innovations and thematic concerns, including their interest in experimentation, spontaneity, and organic form.

This chapter focuses on the period following the civil rights movements and social unrest of the 1960s, which sees a remarkable flourishing of poetry by writers hailing from a wide range of ethnic and racial backgrounds and sexual identities. With sections on African American, Latinx, Asian American, Native American, and LGBTQ poetry, this chapter offers an introduction to the variety and richness of the various branches of multicultural poetry that emerge between 1970s and 2000 and charts the rapid and exciting diversification of American poetry during this period. The chapter examines how poets write about racial identity and ethnic heritage, the immigrant experience, assimilation, language, the ideals and the dark realities of America’s supposedly egalitarian and democratic society, and the tensions between more mainstream lyric approaches and more avant-garde poetics by poets of color. The chapter focuses on a range of representative poets including Michael Harper, Rita Dove, Yusef Komunyakaa, Nathaniel Mackey, Harryette Mullen, Gary Soto, Alberto Ríos, Lorna Dee Cervantes, Martin Espada, Juan Felipe Herrera, Cathy Song, John Yau, Joy Harjo, Frank Bidart, and Mark Doty.

This chapter discusses what happens to modernism, the revolutionary movement that dominated the first half of the twentieth century, as it becomes institutionalized, and examines the movement’s legacy after 1945. It discusses how the poetry of the post-1945 period became dominated by a major schism between “academic” and “anti-academic” poetry (or, as Robert Lowell called it, the “cooked” versus the “raw”). The chapter charts the advent of the New Criticism and explains its main principles, goals, and practitioners, focuses on examples of formalist poems in the New Critical mode by Robert Lowell, Richard Wilbur, and James Merrill, and introduces the new, alternative forms of poetry that came to be known as “The New American Poetry.”

This chapter discusses the poets associated with the so-called “Middle Generation,” a transitional group of writers who were younger than the modernists but older than the poets of the New American poetry discussed in Chapters 1–4. It addresses how the poets of this cohort struggled with the long shadow of their modernist predecessors and addresses their struggles with alcoholism, personal crises, and mental illness. The chapter charts their move away from the New Critical formalist mode that reigned at mid-century toward a looser, more personal mode, which eventually gave rise to Confessional poetry. Focusing especially on Elizabeth Bishop (who distanced herself from Confessionalism), Robert Lowell, John Berryman, Sylvia Plath, and Anne Sexton, this chapter discusses the major stylistic and thematic features of Confessionalism, controversies surrounding this movement, and its profound influence on contemporary poetry.

This chapter focuses on the movement known as Deep Image poetry and traces the origins of this tendency and explores its key characteristics. The chapter discusses Deep Image poetry’s debts to Spanish and Latin American surrealism and other sources and focuses on the work of Robert Bly and, especially, James Wright, in order to sketch out the major features of Deep Image poetics, including its use of images drawn from the unconscious and moments of sudden epiphany.

This chapter focuses on the New York School of poetry and traces its origins, its history, and its legacy. It discusses the importance of the avant-garde tradition and visual art, especially Abstract Expressionism, to the poets of the New York School, and examines the most important formal innovations and thematic concerns of the poets at its heart. The chapter focuses on the work of Frank O’Hara, John Ashbery, Kenneth Koch, James Schuyler, and Barbara Guest, along with poets of the movement’s second generation, including Ted Berrigan, Alice Notley, and Bernadette Mayer.