Twelve hyper-β carotene-producing strains of algae assigned to the genus Dunaliella salina have been isolated from various hypersaline environments in Israel, South Africa, Namibia and Spain. Intron-sizing of the SSU rDNA and phylogenetic analysis of these isolates were undertaken using four commonly employed markers for genotyping, LSU rDNA, ITS, rbcL and tufA and their application to the study of Dunaliella evaluated. Novel isolates have been identified and phylogenetic analyses have shown the need for clarification on the taxonomy of Dunaliella salina. We propose the division of D. salina into four sub-clades as defined by a robust phylogeny based on the concatenation of four genes. This study further demonstrates the considerable genetic diversity within D. salina and the potential of genetic analyses for aiding in the selection of prospective economically important strains.

Introduction. Smoking prevalence is disproportionately high among Asian American immigrant men with limited English proficiency. Understanding the role of family support may provide insights into culturally acceptable strategies to promote smoking cessation. Aims. This study examined how family support was associated with readiness to consider smoking cessation among Chinese and Vietnamese American male daily smokers. Methods. We analyzed baseline data (N = 340) from a cluster randomized trial of a family-based healthy lifestyle intervention. We assessed the frequency of receiving family support in various forms (encouraging use of cessation resources, praising efforts, checking in, and reminding of familial role). Multiple regression analysis was used to determine associations between family support areas and readiness to consider smoking cessation, controlling for covariates. Results/Findings. Reporting a higher frequency of receiving praise and encouragement for one’s efforts to quit was positively associated with readiness to consider cessation. Other areas of family support were not significant. Conclusions. These findings provide evidence to explore specific areas of family support in enhancing Asian American smokers’ readiness to consider cessation. As there is high interest from Asian American family members to support their smokers for quitting, culturally specific and acceptable strategies are needed to promote smoking cessation among Asian Americans.

This article explores the influence of Articles 20 and 21 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union in the development of EU equal treatment law, with emphasis on forms of discrimination precluded by Council Directive 2000/43 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin, and Directive 2000/78 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation. The author contends that although Articles 20 and 21 are primary measure of EU law, their impact in the development of case law elaborated pursuant to the Directives is relatively muted. This may have stunted the development of jurisprudence on the relationship between Articles 20 and 21 of the Charter, and rules contained in Title VI of the Charter governing its interpretation and application, such as Article 52(3) on the relationship between the Charter and the European Convention on Human Rights, and Article 52(1) on justified limitations. The author forewarns against the emergence of incoherence in the case law in this context, and with respect to the role of Articles 20 and 21 in disputes over the meaning of Directives 2000/43 and 2000/78 and calls for fuller reflection on Charter rules in disputes based on an allegation of discrimination.

This article maps out the channels at the disposal of private parties for challenging the legality of EC measures, and attempts some predictions of the future shape and content of this plank of the EU’s judicial architecture. This area of the law is in a state of flux, particularly in the light of rulings such as UEAPME v. Council, Masterfoods Limited v. HB Ice Cream, Fresh Marine Company AS v. Commission, Laboratoires Pharmaceutiques Bergaderm SA, in liquidation, and Jean-Jacques Goupil v. Commission, Bocchi Food Trade International GmbH v. Commission, and most recently, and significantly, Jégo Quéré and Cie SA v. Commission. In this latter ruling the Court of First Instance prescribed a major change to the rules on locus standi under Article 230(4) of the EC Treaty, a hitherto much maligned aspect of the case law, by relaxing the requirement of ‘individual concern’ laid down in that article.

These two quotations, which appeared in articles published only twelve years apart, illustrate the complexity of contemporary challenges facing Australia’s international relations policy makers. It addresses the riddle of how to posit a still dominantly (ethnically and culturally speaking) European society, but one, which is located geographically nearer Asia, within the intricate web of inter-state intercourse which has become a hallmark of the modern world. The dilemma is, of course, far from new, but it has taken on enhanced proportions with the rise of regionalism, and the dissection of the planet into inter-governmental blocks.

Accurate assessment of neonatal body composition is essential to studies investigating neonatal nutrition or developmental origins of obesity. Bioelectrical impedance analysis or bioimpedance analysis is inexpensive, non-invasive and portable, and is widely used in adults for the assessment of body composition. There are currently no prediction algorithms using bioimpedance analysis in neonates that have been directly validated against measurements of fat-free mass (FFM). The aim of the study was to evaluate the use of bioimpedance analysis for the estimation of FFM and percentage of body fat over the first 4 months of life in healthy infants born at term, and to compare these with estimations based on anthropometric measurements (weight and length) and with skinfolds. The present study was an observational study in seventy-seven infants. Body fat content of infants was assessed at birth, 6 weeks, 3 and 4·5 months of age by air displacement plethysmography, using the PEA POD body composition system. Bioimpedance analysis was performed at the same time and the data were used to develop and test prediction equations for FFM. The combination of weight+sex+length predicted FFM, with a bias of < 100 g and limits of agreement of 6–13 %. Before 3 months of age, bioimpedance analysis did not improve the prediction of FFM or body fat. At 3 and 4·5 months, the inclusion of impedance in prediction algorithms resulted in small improvements in prediction of FFM, reducing the bias to < 50 g and limits of agreement to < 9 %. Skinfold measurements performed poorly at all ages.

Phyto-oestrogens have been associated with a decreased risk for osteoporosis, but results from intervention and observational studies in Western countries have been inconsistent. In the present study, we investigated the association between habitual phyto-oestrogen intake and broadband ultrasound attenuation (BUA) of the calcanaeum as a marker of bone density. We collected 7 d records of diet, medical history and demographic and anthropometric data from participants (aged 45–75 years) in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer-Norfolk study. Phyto-oestrogen (biochanin A, daidzein, formononetin; genistein, glycitein; matairesinol; secoisolariciresinol; enterolactone; equol) intake was determined using a newly developed food composition database. Bone density was assessed using BUA of the calcanaeum. Associations between bone density and phyto-oestrogen intake were investigated in 2580 postmenopausal women who were not on hormone replacement therapy and 4973 men. Median intake of total phyto-oestrogens was 876 (interquartile range 412) μg/d in postmenopausal women and 1212 (interquartile range 604) μg/d in men. The non-soya isoflavones formononetin and biochanin A were marginally significant or significantly associated with BUA in postmenopausal women (β = 1·2; P < 0·1) and men (β = 1·2; P < 0·05), respectively; enterolignans and equol were positively associated with bone density in postmenopausal women, but this association became non-significant when dietary Ca was added to the model. In the lowest quintile of Ca intake, soya isoflavones were positively associated with bone density in postmenopausal women (β = 1·4; P < 0·1). The present results therefore suggest that non-soya isoflavones are associated with bone density independent of Ca, whereas the association with soya or soya isoflavones is affected by dietary Ca.

Due to the potential oestrogenic effects of secoisolariciresinol diglycoside (SDG), the mammalian lignan precursor in flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum), we hypothesized that exposure to purified SDG during early life would have a positive effect on developing bone. This present study determined whether exposure to SDG purified from flaxseed during suckling via mother's milk or continuously to adolescence (postnatal day (PND) 50) or adulthood (PND 132) increased bone mineral content (BMC) or bone strength in female rat offspring. Offspring were exposed to basal diet (BD) or one of two doses of SDG (50S, 100S) equivalent to that in a 50 or 100 g flaxseed/kg diet during lactation only or through to PND 50 or 132. At PND 50 and 132, femurs were analysed for BMC by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry and biomechanical strength by a 3-point bending test. Compared with BD group, rats exposed to continuous 50S or 100S diet had stronger femurs at PND 50 without changes in BMC. At PND 132 there were no differences in femur strength despite the fact that continuous exposure to BD resulted in a higher (P<0·05) BMC than rats exposed to 100S during lactation only or to 50S or 100S during lactation through to adulthood. In conclusion, female rat bone is more sensitive to the oestrogen-like action of lignans during early life when endogenous levels of sex hormones are low, but by adulthood the improved bone strength does not persist. Importantly, exposure to purified lignan does not have negative effects on bone strength.

The average somatic nucleus is only 10 microns in diameter, yet contains 2 meters of DNA coiled within its volume. This compaction must be accomplished in such a way so that the DNA remains accessible to the machinery of transcription, replication and repair. Sperm nuclei also have compacted DNA; however, structurally and functionally the arrangement of DNA in sperm is vastly different from that of somatic DNA. Somatic DNA is initially compacted by coiling around histone octamers, while sperm DNA is bound to elongate, highly basic proteins called protamines. Protamines bind the major groove of the double helix and allow adjacent DNA strands to come in close contact by neutralizing the negative charge of the sugar-phosphate backbone. Figure 1 illustrates the two most widely accepted models of DNA compaction in both somatic and sperm nuclei.

The arrangement of DNA within sperm nuclei is difficult to study because it is so highly compressed.

In Case C-188/95 Fantask A/S and Others v. Industriministeriet (Erhvervsministeriet) [1997] E.C.R. I-6783 the European Court of Justice provided further guidance on the interpretation of Council Directive 69/335 EEC of 17 July 1969 concerning indirect taxes on the raising of capital (O.J. English Special Edition 1969 (II), p. 412), as most recently amended by Council Directive 85/303/EEC of 10 June 1985 (O.J. 1985 L 156, p. 23), and elaborated its case law concerning Member State remedies and procedural rules. More particularly, it was held that a national rule which would have allowed Danish authorities to escape the duty to refund charges levied in breach of the Directive on the ground of “excusable error” rendered Community law impossible in practice or excessively difficult to enforce (Case 199/82 Amministrazione delle Finanze dello Stato v. San Giorgio [1983] E.C.R. 3595), while a five-year time limit for bringing proceedings under Danish law was upheld as a reasonable limitation period (cf. Case C-208/90 Emmott v. Minister for Social Welfare and the Attorney General [1991] E.C.R. I-4269).

The average sperm nucleus is only 8 micrometers long, but contains 1 meter of DNA. We have previously described how the sperm cell is able to package this DNA into the small volume of the sperm head. The only DNA structure that exists in both somatic cells and sperm nuclei is the organization of DNA loop domains that are attached at their bases to the nuclear skeleton, the nuclear matrix. We compared the structure of one gene in sperm nuclei to that of spermatogenic and adult cells.

Individual loop domains of the 5S rRNA gene cluster were visualized by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). Nuclei were isolated from hamster spermatozoa, spermatogonia, pachytene spermatocytes, round spermatids, and adult liver cells. They were then extracted to remove the protamines or histones, fixed, hybridized to a biotinylated 5S rDNA probe, then viewed by epifluorescence microscopy. The 5S rDNA in liver nuclei was organized into a single large loop domain (Fig. 1),

The average sperm nucleus is only 8 micrometers long, but contains 1 meter of DNA. We have previously described how the sperm cell is able to package this DNA into the small volume of the sperm head. The only DNA structure that exists in both somatic cells and sperm nuclei is the organization of DNA loop domains that are attached at their bases to the nuclear skeleton, the nuclear matrix. We compared the structure of one gene in sperm nuclei to that of spermatogenic and adult cells.

Individual loop domains of the 5S rRNA gene cluster were visualized by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). Nuclei were isolated from hamster spermatozoa, spermatogonia, pachytene spermatocytes, round spermatids, and adult liver cells. They were then extracted to remove the protamines or histones, fixed, hybridized to a biotinylated 5S rDNA probe, then viewed by epifluorescence microscopy.

The availability of childcare is an important factor in enabling motherhood to be combined with paid employment. This article uses evidence from the fifth sweep of the National Child Development Study to analyse the use of childcare by a cohort of employed women who were aged 33 in 1991. There is a heavy reliance on informal care by women in partnerships and also by lone mothers. Formal care is most heavily used by women whose youngest child is under five, especially if the woman works full-time. Reported costs of childcare represent nearly a quarter of net weekly earnings for mothers with a child under five. Formal childcare is shown to play an important role in facilitating women's full-time employment. Full-time employment is the route by which women achieve financial independence from their partner. It also increases the likelihood of contributing to an occupational pension which, in turn, has implications for financial independence in later life. However, the majority of women in this cohort do not take the full-time route. For these women, low earnings potential and part-time working make paid childcare uneconomic and reinforces both their role as minor financial contributors within the family and their lack of pension provision in later life.