What brings speculative realism and posthumanism together is a mutual understanding that, while the non-human world might be unexpected or unknowable, it is nevertheless real. Strategies for confronting this reality are the focus of this chapter. Although there are different strands of speculative realism, all are based on the argument that while there is a divide between human and non-human worlds, this divide can be crossed, either directly or indirectly. Thus although we can never really know the other because it is outside of human experience, this does not mean there is an unbreachable gap, because art is created by the tension between humanity and the world-beyond-humanity, exceeding even the concepts of art’s creators. Work by Kazuo Ishiguro, Solmaz Sharif, Christian Bök, Denis Villeneuve, and Juliana Spahr is used to develop this thesis.

Executive summary

Nature of the problem

• Single issue policies have been an effective means of reducing reactive nitrogen (Nr) emissions in the EU, but to make further reductions more-integrated approaches are required.

Approaches

• This chapter shows how cost–benefit analysis (CBA) can provide guidance for the setting of new policy priorities for the abatement of the European Nr emissions from an integrated perspective.

• Data on costs and benefits of Nr-abatement, including four national and regional case studies, are reviewed and made comparable by expression in euro per kg of added Nr (agriculture) or euro per kg of reduced Nr emission (unit cost approach).

• Social cost estimates are based on Willingness to Pay (WTP) for human life or health, for ecosystem services and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction.

Key findings

• The total annual Nr-related damage in EU27 ranges between 70 and 320 billion Euro, equivalent to 150–750 euro/capita, of which about 75% is related to health damage and air pollution. This damage cost constitutes 1%–4% of the average European income.

• Inferred social costs of health impacts from NOx are highest (10–30 euro per kg of pollutant-Nr emission). Health costs from secondary ammonium particles (2–20 euro/kg N), from GHG balance effects of N2O (5–15 euro/kg N), from ecosystem impacts via N-runoff (5–20 euro/kg N) and by N-deposition (2–10 euro/kg N) are intermediate. Costs of health impacts from NO3 in drinking water (0–4 euro/kg N) and by N2O via stratospheric ozone depletion (1–3 euro/kg N) are estimated to be low.

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