A number of nearby dwarf galaxies have globular cluster (GC) candidates that require spectroscopic confirmation. Here, we present Keck telescope spectra for 15 known GCs and GC candidates that may be associated with a host dwarf galaxy and an additional 3 GCs in the halo of M31 that are candidates for accretion from a now-disrupted dwarf galaxy. We confirm six star clusters (of intermediate-to-old age) to be associated with NGC 247. The vast bulk of its GC system remains to be studied spectroscopically. We also confirm the GC candidates in F8D1 and DDO190, finding both to be young star clusters. The three M31 halo GCs all have radial velocities consistent with M31 and are old and very metal-poor. Their ages and metallicities are consistent with accretion from a low-mass satellite galaxy. Finally, three objects are found to be background galaxies – two are projected near NGC 247 and one (candidate GCC7) is near the IKN dwarf. The IKN dwarf thus has only five confirmed GCs but still a remarkable specific frequency of 124.

Integral field unit spectrographs allow the 2D exploration of the kinematics and stellar populations of galaxies, although they are generally restricted to small fields-of-view. Using the large field-of-view of the DEIMOS multislit spectrograph on Keck and our Stellar Kinematics using Multiple Slits technique, we are able to extract sky-subtracted stellar light spectra to large galactocentric radii. Here, we present a new DEIMOS mask design named SuperSKiMS that explores large spatial scales without sacrificing high spatial sampling. We simulate a set of observations with such a mask design on the nearby galaxy NGC 1023, measuring stellar kinematics and metallicities out to where the galaxy surface brightness is orders of magnitude fainter than the sky. With this technique we also reproduce the results from literature integral field spectroscopy in the innermost galaxy regions. In particular, we use the simulated NGC 1023 kinematics to model its total mass distribution to large radii, obtaining comparable results with those from published integral field unit observation. Finally, from new spectra of NGC 1023, we obtain stellar 2D kinematics and metallicity distributions that show good agreement with integral field spectroscopy results in the overlapping regions. In particular, we do not find a significant offset between our Stellar Kinematics using Multiple Slits and the ATLAS3D stellar velocity dispersion at the same spatial locations.

We use the kinematics of discrete tracers, primarily globular clusters (GCs) and planetary nebulae (PNe), along with measurements of the integrated starlight to explore the assembly histories of early type galaxies. Data for GCs and stars are taken from the SLUGGS wide field, 2-dimensional, chemo-dynamical survey (Brodie et al. 2014). Data for PNe are from the PN.S survey (see contributions by Gerhard and by Arnaboldi, this volume). We find widespread evidence for 2-phase galaxy assembly and intriguing constraints on hierarchical merging under a lambda CDM cosmology.

We present a suite of extragalactic explorations of the origins and nature of globular clusters (GCs) and ultra-compact dwarfs (UCDs), and the connections between them. An example of GC metallicity bimodality is shown to reflect underlying, distinct metal-poor and metal-rich stellar halo populations. Metallicity-matching methods are used to trace the birth sites and epochs of GCs in giant E/S0s, pointing to clumpy disk galaxies at z ~ 3 for the metal-rich GCs, and to a combination of accreted and in-situ formation modes at z ~ 5–6 for the metal-poor GCs. An increasingly diverse zoo of compact stellar systems is being discovered, including objects that bridge the gaps between UCDs and faint fuzzies, and between UCDs and compact ellipticals. Many of these have properties pointing to origins as the stripped nuclei of larger galaxies, and a smoking-gun example is presented of an ω Cen-like star cluster embedded in a tidal stream.

We detail an innovative new technique for measuring the 2-D velocity moments (rotation velocity, velocity dispersion and Gauss-Hermite coefficients h3 and h4) using spectra from Keck DEIMOS multi-object spectroscopic observations. The data are used to reconstruct 2-D rotation velocity maps.

Understanding the stellar populations of extragalactic globular cluster (GC) systems and, in particular, determining their ages, provide essential clues to constrain the star formation histories of their host galaxies. We here summarize the most relevant results derived from a detailed, spectroscopic study of 20 GCs in the E0 NGC 1407. We find most GCs are old (~11 Gyr), follow a tight metallicity sequence reaching values slightly above solar, and exhibit mean [α/Fe] ratios of ~0.3 dex. Blue horizontal branch effects are detected for 3 GCs. We also report the existence of two families of metal-rich (MR) GCs, as some of them exhibit significantly larger [Mg/Fe] and [C/Fe] ratios, what might be interpreted in terms of different star formation time-scales. Striking CN overabundances are found over the entire GC metallicity range. In particular, for MR GCs, N increases dramatically while C essentially saturates. This may be interpreted as a consequence of the increasing importance of the CNO cycle with increasing metallicity.

Using new (Cycle 9) HST / WFPC2 data, we have studied a peculiar star forming region in the nearby Sc-type spiral NGC 6946. The region has a bubble-like shape and a diameter of about 600 pc. Near the centre is an extremely luminous young globular cluster with MV = −13.2 mag. The cluster has a compact core with a core radius of about 1.3 pc but is surrounded by an extended halo with a power-law luminosity profile similar to that observed for young LMC clusters. From Keck / HIRES high-dispersion spectroscopy we measure a velocity dispersion of 10 km s−1, leading to a dynamical mass estimate of about 1.7 × 106 solar masses. The dynamical mass estimate is comparable to the expectation from population synthesis modelling under the assumption of a Salpeter IMF extending down to 0.1 M⊙.

New and archival HST images of the globular cluster systems of 17 relatively nearby galaxies and 6 more distant galaxies have been used to establish the characteristics of GC subpopulations over a range of host galaxy morphological type from E5 to Sa. GC color/metallicity, size and luminosity distributions have been examined in the nearby galaxies and color distributions have been determined for the more distant sample. Correlations with parent galaxy properties and trends with galactocentric radius have been explored. Supplemented with Keck spectroscopy, our results are best explained by an in situ formation scenario in which both GC subpopulations formed at early times within the potential well of the protogalaxy, in multiple episodes of star formation. We have also discovered a third population of clusters, fundamentally distinct from the compact red and blue clusters common in early type galaxies.

The merger model for elliptical galaxy formation has received increasing attention since it was first suggested by Toomre & Toomre (1972). Van den Bergh (1984) pointed out a problem with the idea that elliptical galaxies were formed by simply combining two, or more, spiral galaxies. He noted that the specific frequency (SN, number of globular clusters per unit galaxy light) is systematically lower for spirals than for ellipticals. Schweizer (1987) suggested that globular clusters might be expected to form in the merger process, thereby alleviating or possibly eliminating the SN problem. Ashman & Zepf (1992) developed this idea into a merger model for globular cluster formation with testable predictions.

The discovery, with HST imaging, of proto–globular cluster candidates in NGC 1275 (Holtzman et al. 1992) was regarded by many as a major success of the merger model for globular cluster formation (e.g. Ashman & Zepf 1992) and has been cited in support of the idea that elliptical galaxies form from the merger of two or more spiral galaxies. A prediction of the Ashman & Zepf model was that newly-formed clusters should be observable in currently or recently merging systems. The NGC 1275 clusters constitute an important test of globular cluster formation models. NGC 1275 is the peculiar cD galaxy at the center of the Perseus cluster. It shows evidence for a merger history and may indeed be undergoing a merger at present. It also has one of the largest known cooling flows.

The merger model for elliptical galaxy formation has received increasing attention since it was first suggested by Toomre & Toomre (1972). Van den Bergh (1984) pointed out a problem with the idea that elliptical galaxies were formed by simply combining two, or more, spiral galaxies. He noted that the specific frequency (SN, number of globular clusters per unit galaxy light) is systematically lower for spirals than for ellipticals. Schweizer (1987) suggested that globular clusters (GCs) might be expected to form in the merger process, thereby alleviating or possibly eliminating the SN problem. Ashman & Zepf (1992) developed this idea into a merger model for GC formation with testable predictions.

We recently examined this model in the light of new HST and ground-based imaging data on the blue and red sub-populations of GCs in elliptical galaxies (Forbes, Brodie & Grillmair 1997). We concluded that the merger model for GC formation has serious problems, particularly in explaining the characteristics of GCs in giant elliptical galaxies with high SN. A multi-phase collapse scenario was suggested as more consistent with the available evidence.

The work described here has two main goals:

1. (1) To test the usefulness of Abell clusters for locating voids

   It is well known that Abell clusters are not uniformly distributed in three-dimensional space (e.g. Bahcall and Soneira, 1983). Recently, Batuski and Bums (1985a, b) have suggested that Abell clusters tend to form filamentary structures between which there appear to be large regions (50–200 Mpc across) devoid of bright galaxies. The technique of using Abell clusters as tracers of voids is controversial because the correlation length of Abell clusters is so much larger than the galaxy-galaxy correlation length. However, compared to an all-sky magnitude-limited survey, the technique, if valid, potentially reduces the amount of telescope time required to identify significant voids and map them in redshift space. To investigate this possibility we have undertaken a redshift survey of galaxies in the direction of a nearby and relatively compact candidate void surrounded by a ring of Abell clusters.

2. (2) To identify a void suitable for more extensive study.

   Ultimately we would like to know not only the degree to which voids are empty, but also to what extent those galaxies that may be found within a void differ from those in the surrounding shell. Some theorists (e.g. Dekel and Silk, 1986 and references therein) suggest that as a result of biased galaxy formation, galaxies within a void might be expected to be preferentially younger, fainter, more irregular, more metal-poor and more gas-rich than shell galaxies. The region we selected for study is one which forms part of the Haynes and Giovanelli (1986 and references therein) 21 cm redshift survey. It was chosen, in part, because it is of interest to compare optical results with radio data to determine whether or not the two techniques reveal the same structure.