The objective of this study was to explore how selected sub-national (provincial) primary healthcare units in Ethiopia responded to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and what impact these measures had on essential health services.

National-level responses against the spread of COVID-19 and its consequences are well studied. However, data on capacities and challenges of sub-national health systems in mitigating the impact of COVID-19 on essential health services are limited. In countries with decentralized health systems like Ethiopia, a study of COVID-19 impacts on essential health services could inform government bodies, partners, and providers to strengthen the response against the pandemic and document lessons learned.

We conducted a qualitative study, using a descriptive phenomenology research design. A total of 59 health leaders across Ethiopia’s 10 regions and 2 administrative cities were purposively selected to participate in key informant interviews. Data were collected using a semi-structured interview guide translated into a local language. Interviews were conducted in person or by phone. Coding of transcripts led to the development of categories and themes, which were finalized upon agreement between two investigators. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.

Essential health services declined in the first months of the pandemic, affecting maternal and child health including deliveries, immunization, family planning services, and chronic disease services. Services declined due to patients’ and providers’ fear of contracting COVID-19, increased cost of transport, and reallocation of financial and human resources to the various activities of the response. Authorities of local governments and the health system responded to the pandemic immediately, capitalizing on multisectoral support and redirecting resources; however, the intensity of the response declined as time progressed. Future investments in health system hardware – health workers, supplies, equipment, and infrastructure as well as carefully designed interventions and coordination are needed to shore up the COVID-19 response.

We hypothesise that exposure to aflatoxins and fumonisins, measured in serum, alters protein synthesis, reducing serum protein and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), increasing inflammation and infection, leading to child’s linear growth failure.

Children 6–35 months, stratified by baseline stunting, were subsampled from an intervention trial on quality protein maize consumption and evaluated at two time-points.

Blood samples and anthropometric data were collected in the pre-harvest (August–September 2015) and post-harvest (February 2016) seasons in rural Ethiopia.

102 children (50 stunted and 52 non-stunted).

Proportions of children exposed to aflatoxin G1, aflatoxin G2 and aflatoxin M1 were higher in the pre-harvest (8, 33 and 7, respectively) compared to post-harvest season (4, 28 and 4, respectively). The proportion of children exposed to any aflatoxin was higher in the pre-harvest than post-harvest season (51 % v. 41 %). Fumonisin exposure ranged from 0 % to 11 %. In joint statistical tests, aflatoxin exposure was associated with serum biomarkers of inflammation (C-reactive protein, α-1-glycoprotein) and protein status (transthyretin, lysine, tryptophan), IGF-1 and linear growth (all P < 0·01). However, exposure to specific aflatoxins was not significantly associated with any biomarkers or outcomes (all P > 0·05).

Aflatoxin exposure among rural Ethiopian children was high, with large variation between seasons and individual aflatoxins. Fumonisin exposure was low. There was no clear association between aflatoxin exposure and protein status, inflammation or linear growth. A larger study may be needed to examine the potential biological interactions, and the assessment of aflatoxins in food is needed to determine sources of high exposure.