The relevance of education and outreach (E&O) activities about the Antarctic Treaty has been recognized at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) and at the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP). This study examines the key topics and the target audiences detailed in papers submitted to the ATCM on E&O. Since the Antarctic Treaty entered into force in 1961, a total of 216 ATCM papers on E&O have been produced. The number of papers has increased substantially since the mid-1990s. ‘Science’ (76.9%) and ‘Wildlife/Biodiversity/Environment’ (75.5%) were the most addressed topics in these papers, while the ‘Public’ (81.0%) and those attending ‘Schools’ (69.0%) are the main target audiences. ‘Science’ in ATCM papers increased ~120-fold from 1961–1997 to 2015–2023, while ATCM papers discussing engagement with the ‘Public’ increased ~40-fold during the same period. ‘Climate change’ was first mentioned in 2006, and the number of papers per year increased fourfold by 2015–2023. This study shows the increasing interest in E&O through time, addressing key topics to relevant audiences related to the Antarctic region. From an educational perspective, attention should be paid to emerging topics (e.g. equity, diversity and inclusion), and the engagement of early-career professionals and educators should be made a priority.

Ultra-processed foods (UPF), defined using the Nova classification system, are associated with increased chronic disease risk. More recently, evidence suggests the UPF subgroup of whole-grain breads and cereals is in fact linked with reduced chronic disease risk. This study aimed to explore associations of cardiometabolic risk measures with Nova UPF intake v. when foods with ≥ 25 or ≥ 50 % whole grains are excluded from the definition. We considered dietary data from the Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey 2011–2012. Impacts on associations of UPF intake (quintiles) and cardiometabolic risk measures were analysed using regression models. The median proportion of UPF intake from high whole-grain foods was zero for all quintiles. Participants in the highest Nova UPF intake quintile had significantly higher weight (78·1 kg (0·6)), BMI (27·2 kg/m2 (0·2)), waist circumference (92·7 cm (0·5)) and weight-to-height ratio (0·55 (0·003)) compared with the lowest quintile (P< 0·05). Associations were the same when foods with ≥ 25 and ≥ 50 % whole grains were excluded. Adjusted R-squared values remained similar across all approaches for all outcomes. In Australia, high whole-grain foods considered UPF may not significantly contribute to deleterious cardiometabolic risk associations. Until conclusive evidence on Nova UPF is available, prioritisation should be given to the nutrient density of high whole-grain foods and their potential contribution to improving whole-grain intakes and healthful dietary patterns in Australia.

The complementary feeding period (6-23 months of age) is when solid foods are introduced alongside breastmilk or infant formula and is the most significant dietary change a person will experience. The introduction of complementary foods is important to meet changing nutritional requirements(1). Despite the rising Asian population in New Zealand, and the importance of nutrition during the complementary feeding period, there is currently no research on Asian New Zealand (NZ) infants’ micronutrient intakes from complementary foods. Complementary foods are a more easily modifiable component of the diet than breastmilk or other infant milk intake. This study aimed to compare the dietary intake of micronutrients from complementary foods of Asian infants and non-Asian infants in NZ. This study reported a secondary analysis of the First Foods New Zealand cross-sectional study of infants (aged 7.0-9.9 months) in Dunedin and Auckland. 24-hour recall data were analysed using FoodFiles 10 software with the NZ food composition database FOODfiles 2018, and additional data for commercial complementary foods(2). The multiple source method was used to estimate usual dietary intake. Ethnicity was collected from the main questionnaire of the study, answered by the respondents (the infant’s parent/caregiver). Within the Asian NZ group, three Asian subgroups were identified – South East Asian, East Asian, and South Asian. The non-Asian group included all remaining participants of non-Asian ethnicities. Most nutrient reference values (NRV’s)(3) available for the 7-12 month age group are for total intake from complementary foods and infant milks, so the adequacy for the micronutrient intakes from complementary foods alone could not be determined. Vitamin A was the only micronutrient investigated in this analysis that had an NRV available from complementary foods only, allowing conclusions around adequacy to be made. The Asian NZ group (n = 99) had lower mean group intakes than the non-Asian group (n = 526) for vitamin A (274µg vs. 329µg), and vitamin B12 (0.49µg vs. 0.65µg), and similar intakes for vitamin C (27.8mg vs. 28.5mg), and zinc (1.7mg vs. 1.9mg). Mean group iron intakes were the same for both groups (3.0mg). The AI for vitamin A from complementary foods (244µg) was exceeded by the mean intakes for both groups, suggesting that Vitamin A intakes were adequate. The complementary feeding period is a critical time for obtaining nutrients essential for development and growth. The results from this study indicate that Asian NZ infants have lower intakes of two of the micronutrients of interest than the non-Asian infants in NZ. However, future research is needed with the inclusion of infant milk intake in these groups to understand the total intake of the micronutrients. Vitamin A intakes do appear to be adequate in NZ infants.

The popularity of a vegan diet is growing worldwide. Data analysed from the 2018 NZ Attitudes and Values study showed that 1.1% of New Zealanders followed a vegan diet(1). Though there are potential nutrient deficiencies in a vegan diet, it is generally accepted that a vegan diet, with its emphasis on a variety of vegetables, fruit, grains, legumes, and pulses, has greater metabolic benefits than a Western-style diet high in red meat and processed foods and lower in plants(2). This observational cross-sectional study aimed to explore the dietary intake (4-day food diary) and metabolic health status (including anthropometry, blood pressure, lipids, body fat percentage, omega-3 index and glycaemic control) of adults who had been consuming a vegan diet for 2+ years. Participants (N = 212) were predominantly female (N = 155) with a mean (SD) age of 39.5 (12.4) years. Mean cardiometabolic markers of systolic and diastolic blood pressure, BMI, waist circumference, HbA1c, total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, Chol:HDL ratio and triglycerides were all below the thresholds for disease risk. Omega-3 index results <4% placed most participants (86.3%) in the high-risk category for heart disease. Many female participants (71%) had >30% body fat, compared to 5.3% of males. With reference to the AMDR (total fat 20-35%, carbohydrate 45-65% and protein 15-25%), the intake of total fat was at the upper end (males 34.4%, females 35.9%), carbohydrate was at the lower end (males 46.2%, females 44.7%), and protein was below the lower end (males 14.9%, females 14.2%). Saturated fat intakes ranged from 4.0-65.9 g/d, with a mean (SD) of 24.9 (10.5) g/d for males and 20.2 (9.9) g/d for females. The mean (SD) dietary fibre intake was much higher than the AI set by the Ministry of Health of 25g/d for females and 30g/d for males, at 55.0 (17.8) g/d for males and 43.4 (12.8) g/d for females, ranging from 10.9-133.9g/d. This is the first New Zealand study to examine the metabolic health and dietary intake of adult vegans. The results of cardiometabolic health markers indicate that the vegan diet confers cardioprotective benefits. However, the low Omega-3 index of most participants is concerning, which warrants longitudinal research to assess the level of risk conferred by a low Omega-3 index result in a population with no other cardiometabolic risk factors. The findings of the present study may help guide the growing New Zealand vegan community towards a nutritionally optimal vegan diet.

The prevalence of food allergies in New Zealand infants is unknown; however, it is thought to be similar to Australia, where the prevalence is over 10% of 1-year-olds(1). Current New Zealand recommendations for reducing the risk of food allergies are to: offer all infants major food allergens (age appropriate texture) at the start of complementary feeding (around 6 months); ensure major allergens are given to all infants before 1 year; once a major allergen is tolerated, maintain tolerance by regularly (approximately twice a week) offering the allergen food; and continue breastfeeding while introducing complementary foods(2). To our knowledge, there is no research investigating whether parents follow these recommendations. Therefore, this study aimed to explore parental offering of major food allergens to infants during complementary feeding and parental-reported food allergies. The cross-sectional study included 625 parent-infant dyads from the multi-centred (Auckland and Dunedin) First Foods New Zealand study. Infants were 7-10 months of age and participants were recruited in 2020-2022. This secondary analysis included the use of a study questionnaire and 24-hour diet recall data. The questionnaire included determining whether the infant was currently breastfed, whether major food allergens were offered to the infant, whether parents intended to avoid any foods during the first year of life, whether the infant had any known food allergies, and if so, how they were diagnosed. For assessing consumers of major food allergens, 24-hour diet recall data was used (2 days per infant). The questionnaire was used to determine that all major food allergens were offered to 17% of infants aged 9-10 months. On the diet recall days, dairy (94.4%) and wheat (91.2%) were the most common major food allergens consumed. Breastfed infants (n = 414) were more likely to consume sesame than non-breastfed infants (n = 211) (48.8% vs 33.7%, p≤0.001). Overall, 12.6% of infants had a parental-reported food allergy, with egg allergy being the most common (45.6% of the parents who reported a food allergy). A symptomatic response after exposure was the most common diagnostic tool. In conclusion, only 17% of infants were offered all major food allergens by 9-10 months of age. More guidance may be required to ensure current recommendations are followed and that all major food allergens are introduced by 1 year of age. These results provide critical insight into parents’ current practices, which is essential in determining whether more targeted advice regarding allergy prevention and diagnosis is required.

Although food insecurity affects a significant proportion of young children in New Zealand (NZ)(1), evidence of its association with dietary intake and sociodemographic characteristics in this population is lacking. This study aims to assess the household food security status of young NZ children and its association with energy and nutrient intake and sociodemographic factors. This study included 289 caregiver and child (1-3 years old) dyads from the same household in either Auckland, Wellington, or Dunedin, NZ. Household food security status was determined using a validated and NZ-specific eight-item questionnaire(2). Usual dietary intake was determined from two 24-hour food recalls, using the multiple source method(3). The prevalence of inadequate nutrient intake was assessed using the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) cut-point method and full probability approach. Sociodemographic factors (i.e., socioeconomic status, ethnicity, caregiver education, employment status, household size and structure) were collected from questionnaires. Linear regression models were used to estimate associations with statistical significance set at p <0.05. Over 30% of participants had experienced food insecurity in the past 12 months. Of all eight indicator statements, “the variety of foods we are able to eat is limited by a lack of money,” had the highest proportion of participants responding “often” or “sometimes” (35.8%). Moderately food insecure children exhibited higher fat and saturated fat intakes, consuming 3.0 (0.2, 5.8) g/day more fat, and 2.0 (0.6, 3.5) g/day more saturated fat compared to food secure children (p<0.05). Severely food insecure children had lower g/kg/day protein intake compared to food secure children (p<0.05). In comparison to food secure children, moderately and severely food insecure children had lower fibre intake, consuming 1.6 (2.8, 0.3) g/day and 2.6 (4.0, 1.2) g/day less fibre, respectively. Severely food insecure children had the highest prevalence of inadequate calcium (7.0%) and vitamin C (9.3%) intakes, compared with food secure children [prevalence of inadequate intakes: calcium (2.3%) and vitamin C (2.8%)]. Household food insecurity was more common in those of Māori or Pacific ethnicity; living in areas of high deprivation; having a caregiver who was younger, not in paid employment, or had low educational attainment; living with ≥2 other children in the household; and living in a sole-parent household. Food insecure young NZ children consume a diet that exhibits lower nutritional quality in certain measures compared to their food-secure counterparts. Food insecurity was associated with various sociodemographic factors that are closely linked with poverty or low income. As such, there is an urgent need for poverty mitigation initiatives to safeguard vulnerable young children from the adverse consequences of food insecurity.

The fundamental principle of veganism is to avoid all possible animal exploitation and therefore, animal ethics has always been a primary motivator. Nowadays, the environment and health are also common motivators. Omission of all animal products leads to dietary exclusion of vitamin B12, limited intake of omega-3 fatty acids, specifically EPA and DHA, and intake of low bioavailable iron sources1. Obtaining the knowledge to appropriately plan and replace nutrients through food or supplementation is key to avoiding deficiencies and subsequent consequences. This study aimed to determine the effect of motivation for being vegan on intake of key nutrients and nutritional knowledge. This cross-sectional, observational study recruited participants, who had followed a vegan diet for minimum 2 years. Demographics and nutrition knowledge were obtained from questionnaires. Motivation type was determined using the validated vegetarian eating motives inventory (VEMI) – participants scored the importance of animal ethic, environment and health. Intakes of vitamin B12 and iron, were collected using a 4-day food diary and assessed against Estimated Average Requirement (EAR). Blood samples were taken to determine status of vitamin B12, haemoglobin, serum ferritin, and omega-3 index. Omega-3 index score ≤4 indicates increased risk of coronary heart disease. Animal ethics was the greatest motivator to become vegan, with 83.5% of participants scoring it as very important, compared to 71.7% of people stating the environment, and 53.3% stating health. No association was found between all motivation types and intake of vitamin B12 and iron, nor omega-3 index. Mean vitamin B12 intake (supplements excluded) of 2.11ug/day ± 3.43 exceeded the EAR of 2.0ug/day for both men and women, however intakes ranged between 0.00 and 37.63ug/day. Mean intake of iron (18.77mg/day) exceeded the EAR for both men and women. Overall mean omega-3 index was 3.16%. Both men (162.24g/L) and women (151.44g/L) had adequate mean Hb serum concentrations. Mean serum ferritin was within normal range for both men (64.86ug/L ± 43.48) and women (32.55ug/L ± 26.04). Overall mean serum vitamin B12 was within normal range (316.54pmol/L ± 146.18), however a large range was observed from 72.00pmol/L to 1,015pmol/L. Males and females had similar knowledge, with only one question regarding fibre content in cornflakes found to be significantly different (P = 0.012). Knowledge was varied e.g., 100% of participants could identify that pasta was a carbohydrate source, yet could not identify which fats are most important to reduce. Mean vitamin B12 intake exceeding EAR and normal status despite limited vegan sources, indicates high consumption of high bioavailable fortified foods, and supplementation. Iron status shows large consumption of iron rich foods to overcome bioavailability issues, reflected by adequate iron intake, after increasing EAR by 80% to meet recommendations. The mean omega-3 index shows a low cardioprotective omega-3 fatty acid intake.

Cow’s milk is the primary source of calcium in the NZ diet(1). The absence of dietary planning in a vegan diet can result in the individual unknowingly obtaining low intakes of calcium. Prolonged low calcium intakes can result in negative implications on bone mineral density by increasing the risk of osteoporosis later in life. The measurement of bone health parameters in NZ vegan adults have not been investigated. Therefore, we measured bone mineral density, markers of calcium homeostasis and assessed intake of essential nutrients for optimal bone health in vegans. This cross-sectional study included adults (>18yrs), who followed a vegan diet for 2 years minimum. Demographic and lifestyle information was obtained from questionnaires including previous history of bone fractures and background of familial osteoporosis. A 4-day food record was completed for analysis of calcium, zinc, protein, magnesium, phosphorus and vitamin C intake and compared to the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR)(2). Weight, height and BMI were obtained, bone mineral density was measured at the hip and spine via dual x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and reported as Z and T scores. Plasma calcium concentrations were corrected for albumin. All values are presented as mean and standard deviation. The study included 212 participants, aged 39 ± 12.38 years, 71% female. T scores at the lumbar spine and femoral neck were −0.63 ± 1.22 (Z score: −0.29 ± 1.12) and −0.66 ± 1.00 (Z score: −0.24 ± 0.89), respectively. Nine participants had a Z-score of <-2.0 at the lumbar spine, and three at the femoral neck. Corrected calcium concentrations were 2.21 ± 0.33 mmol/L. Calcium intake was 917 ± 347.23 (range 195 to 2,429 mg/day) in all participants, which exceeded the EAR of 840 mg/day for adults aged 19-50 years. Men had higher intakes of calcium than women, 1,051 ± 363.7 mg/day (range 382 to 2,267 mg/day) vs. 867 ± 328.04 mg/day (range 194 to 2,428 mg/day), P-value <0.001. The main source of calcium in the vegan diet was tofu. The intake of protein (77 ± 27.80) g/day, magnesium (569 ± 181.05) mg/day, and vitamin C (145 ± 96.94) mg/day met the EAR, excluding vitamin and mineral supplements. However, the intake of phosphorus (1,472 ± 459.98) mg/day and zinc (10.6 ± 4.01) mg/day were below the EAR. The findings of this study suggest that bone health of vegans are not negatively affected by the exclusion of dairy in the diet, provided that appropriate dietary planning is included to avoid nutrient deficiencies associated with poor bone health. Despite mean intake of calcium exceeding the EAR, very low intakes demonstrated significant variations between participants.

As concerns grow about the impact of animal farming on the environment, the appeal of plant-based diets has increased(1). The most extreme of these diets is the vegan diet which excludes all animal and insect sourced products. The vegan diet is often lauded as being beneficial for cardiovascular health, with the exclusion of saturated fats from animal meats, and the high intake of fibre from fruit and vegetables. More lately, however, there has been an exponential increase in the availability of vegan ultra-processed (UPFs), ready to eat foods which may not be so heart healthy. This study aimed to audit the vegan-labelled, plant-based meat and dairy analogues (PBMAs and PBDAs) available in New Zealand supermarkets. The objective was to compare the nutrient content against foods of animal origin that these products emulate. The audit was completed between March and June 2022 using a combination of on-site data collection and online sources. Data were collected from New Zealand’s five major supermarkets, Countdown, Fresh Choice, New World, Pak’nSave and Four Square. The audit recorded vegan and plant-based labelled products imitating animal meats (chicken, mince, beef, sausage, burgers, bacon, nuggets), and dairy (milk, cheese, yoghurt). Nutrient composition was taken from the Nutrition Information Panel (NIP) for each product and then a mean (SD) derived from a sample of each category. Nutrient composition for the comparison meat and dairy products was taken from NZ FOODFiles(2). All nutrients were reported per 100g or100ml. The PBMAs generally had higher energy, sodium and fibre, and lower protein than their meat counterparts. For example, plant-based burgers compared with beef burgers had 863kJ vs 761kJ energy, 436g vs 130g sodium, 2.3g vs 1.2g fibre, 15g vs 19g protein per 100g. Total fat and saturated fat were mostly lower in the meat products than in PBMAs, except for sausages. The plant-based milk analogues were lower in protein and fat than dairy milk, except soy (protein) and coconut (fat) milks. PBDAs were either completely lacking in calcium or were fortified to a similar level as dairy milk. Most plant-based cheeses and yoghurts were not fortified with calcium and were higher in energy, total fat and saturated fat than dairy. Vitamin B12 fortification of all plant-based products varied widely but contained less than meats and dairy. The wide range of plant-based UPFs included in this audit demonstrated little or no health advantage over animal derived meats and dairy products. The high salt and saturated fat content of these products suggest increased cardiometabolic risk if consumed as a regular part of the vegan diet despite higher fibre content.

Trail running is an endurance sport growing in popularity. It is characterised by long event durations and extreme environments that are likely to result in high exercise energy expenditure. Energy availability is defined as the amount of energy available to support normal physiological functions after subtracting the energy cost of exercise from energy intake. Insufficient energy intake, increased exercise, or a combination of both can result in a state of low energy availability (LEA). While research shows a weak positive association between nutrition knowledge and diet quality, results are conflicting regarding associations between nutrition knowledge and LEA. Research has demonstrated a high prevalence of risk of LEA (~33%-85%) among both elite and recreational athletes, across both sexes and in endurance sports such as running. However, little is known about risk of LEA and nutrition knowledge in trail runners. The aim of this study was to determine the risk of LEA prevalence in recreational trail runners and investigate associations with nutrition knowledge. Risk of LEA was assessed using the ‘Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire’ (LEAF-Q)(1), and the ‘Low Energy Availability in Males Questionnaire’ (LEAM-Q)(2). Nutrition knowledge was measured via the ‘Platform for Evaluating Athlete Knowledge in Sports – Nutrition Questionnaire’ (PEAKS-NQ)(3). Demographics and trail-running experience questions were integrated into the survey. Data was analysed in SPSS version 29 (IBM Corporation). Comparisons between groups (e.g. ‘low risk’ vs ‘not low risk’) were performed using a chi-square test for categorical variables, and an independent samples t-test for continuous variables. The final survey sample was 217 (140 females, 42.01 ± 10.72 years; 77 males, 47.86 ± 12.05 years) for the LEAF-Q, LEAM-Q, and trail running questions; and 152 for the PEAKS-NQ. Thirty-one percent of females (n = 43) were classified as ‘not low risk’ of LEA based on the LEAF-Q cut-off of ≥8. Twenty-three percent of males (n = 18) were identified as having low sex drive, a marker of LEA risk. The LEAF-Q/sex drive score was higher in those ‘not at low risk’ (10.72 ± 2.28/4.50 ± 1.95) compared to those at low risk (3.94 ± 2.34/1.53 ± 1.12, p<0.001). Three quarters of general nutrition knowledge responses were correct (females, 78.60 ± 10.09%; males, 75.78 ± 10.67%). However, sports nutrition scores were lower (females, 66.31 ± 13.44%; males, 63.18 ± 15.53%) with the lowest mean scores observed for ‘fuel for during events’. There was no significant association between nutrition knowledge and risk of LEA in both sexes. The findings suggest that recreational trail runners are a group of active individuals who are at risk of LEA and that they might benefit from more sports-specific nutrition education.

Protein intake, sources and distribution impact on muscle protein synthesis and muscle mass in older adults. However, it is less clear whether dietary protein influences muscle strength. Data were obtained from the Researching Eating Activity and Cognitive Health (REACH) study, a cross-sectional study aimed at investigating dietary patterns, cognitive function and metabolic syndrome in older adults aged 65–74 years. Dietary intake was assessed using a 4-d food record and muscle strength using a handgrip strength dynamometer. After adjusting for confounders, in female older adults (n 212), total protein intake (β = 0⋅22, P < 0⋅01); protein from dairy and eggs (β = 0⋅21, P = 0⋅03) and plant food sources (β = 0⋅60, P < 0⋅01); and frequently consuming at least 0⋅4 g/kg BW per meal (β = 0⋅08, P < 0⋅01) were associated with higher BMI-adjusted muscle strength. However, protein from meat and fish intake and the coefficient of variance of protein intake were not related to BMI-muscle strength in female older adults. No statistically significant associations were observed in male participants (n = 113). There may be sex differences when investigating associations between protein intake and muscle strength in older adults. Further research is needed to investigate these sex differences.

Evidence from developmental psychology on children's imagination is currently too limited to support Dubourg and Baumard's proposal and, in several respects, it is inconsistent with their proposal. Although children have impressive imaginative powers, we highlight the complexity of the developmental trajectory as well as the close connections between children's imagination and reality.

Associative Tool Use (ATU) describes the use of two or more tools in combination, with the literature further differentiating between Tool set use, Tool composite use, Sequential tool use and Secondary tool use. Research investigating the cognitive processes underlying ATU has shown that some primate and bird species spontaneously invent Tool set and Sequential tool use. Yet studies with humans are sparse. Whether children are also able to spontaneously invent ATU behaviours and at what age this ability emerges is poorly understood. We addressed this gap in the literature with two experiments involving preschoolers (E1, N = 66, 3 years 6 months to 4 years 9 months; E2, N = 119, 3 years 0 months to 6 years 10 months) who were administered novel tasks measuring Tool set, Metatool and Sequential tool use. Participants needed to solve the tasks individually, without the opportunity for social learning (except for enhancement effects). Children from 3 years of age spontaneously invented all of the types of investigated ATU behaviours. Success rates were low, suggesting that individual invention of ATU in novel tasks is still challenging for preschoolers. We discuss how future studies can use and expand our tasks to deepen our understanding of tool use and problem-solving in humans and non-human animals.

The metabolic syndrome is common in older adults and may be modified by the diet. The aim of this study was to examine associations between a posteriori dietary patterns and the metabolic syndrome in an older New Zealand population. The REACH study (Researching Eating, Activity, and Cognitive Health) included 366 participants (aged 65–74 years, 36 % male) living independently in Auckland, New Zealand. Dietary data were collected using a 109-item FFQ with demonstrated validity and reproducibility for assessing dietary patterns using principal component analysis. The metabolic syndrome was defined by the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III. Associations between dietary patterns and the metabolic syndrome, adjusted for age, sex, index of multiple deprivation, physical activity, and energy intake were analysed using logistic regression analysis. Three dietary patterns explained 18 % of dietary intake variation – ‘Mediterranean style’ (salad/leafy cruciferous/other vegetables, avocados/olives, alliums, nuts/seeds, shellfish and white/oily fish, berries), ‘prudent’ (dried/fresh/frozen legumes, soya-based foods, whole grains and carrots) and ‘Western’ (processed meat/fish, sauces/condiments, cakes/biscuits/puddings and meat pies/hot chips). No associations were seen between ‘Mediterranean style’ (OR = 0·75 (95 % CI 0·53, 1·06), P = 0·11) or ‘prudent’ (OR = 1·17 (95 % CI 0·83, 1·59), P = 0·35) patterns and the metabolic syndrome after co-variate adjustment. The ‘Western’ pattern was positively associated with the metabolic syndrome (OR = 1·67 (95 % CI 1·08, 2·63), P = 0·02). There was also a small association between an index of multiple deprivation (OR = 1·04 (95 % CI 1·02, 1·06), P < 0·001) and the metabolic syndrome. This cross-sectional study provides further support for a Western dietary pattern being a risk factor for the metabolic syndrome in an older population.

Historically, there are inconsistencies in the calculation of whole-grain intake, particularly through use of highly variable whole-grain food definitions. The current study aimed to determine the impact of using a whole-grain food definition on whole-grain intake estimation in Australian and Swedish national cohorts and investigate impacts on apparent associations with CVD risk factors. This utilised the Australian National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey 2011–2012, the Swedish Riksmaten adults 2010–2011 and relevant food composition databases. Whole-grain intakes and associations with CVD risk factors were determined based on consumption of foods complying with the Healthgrain definition (≥30 % whole grain (dry weight), more whole than refined grain and meeting accepted standards for ‘healthy foods’ based on local regulations) and compared with absolute whole-grain intake. Compliance of whole-grain containing foods with the Healthgrain definition was low in both Sweden (twenty-nine of 155 foods) and Australia (214 of 609 foods). Significant mean differences of up to 24·6 g/10 MJ per d of whole-grain intake were highlighted using Swedish data. Despite these large differences, application of a whole-grain food definition altered very few associations with CVD risk factors, specifically, changes with body weight and blood glucose associations in Australian adults where a whole-grain food definition was applied, and some anthropometric measures in Swedish data where a high percentage of whole-grain content was included. Use of whole-grain food definitions appears to have limited impact on measuring whole-grain health benefits but may have greater relevance in public health messaging.