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To investigate food sources and intakes of iron, and dietary factors associated with serum ferritin levels in 6–24-month-old children.
Design:
A cross-sectional survey employing proportionate cluster sampling was conducted in 1998/1999. Dietary intakes were assessed using a non-consecutive 3-day weighed food record. Serum ferritin and C-reactive protein were analysed from non-fasting venepuncture blood samples and general sociodemographic data were collected.
Setting:
Cities of Christchurch, Dunedin and Invercargill, New Zealand.
Subjects:
Randomly selected healthy 6–24-month-old non-breast-feeding children (n=226).
Results:
Total iron intakes (±standard deviation (SD)) among non-breast-feeding infants (<12 months old; n=42) and toddlers (≥12 months old; n=184) were 8.4±2.9 mg day−1 and 5.0±2.5 mg day−1, respectively. Fifteen per cent of infants and 66% of toddlers were at risk of inadequate iron intakes. Main sources of dietary iron were infant formula (60%) for infants and cereals (31%) for toddlers. Meat contributed on average 2% and 10% of dietary iron in the infant and toddler diets, respectively. Dietary factors positively associated with serum ferritin were intakes of iron and vitamin C, whereas intakes of calcium and dietary fibre were negatively associated. For each 1% increase in percentage of energy from iron-fortified formula concomitant with a 1% decrease from dairy products, there was a 4.2% increased odds of replete iron stores (ferritin ≥20 μg l−1).
Conclusions:
Toddlers were at higher risk of sub-optimal iron intakes than infants. Results suggest that a diet high in bioavailable iron is important for optimising the iron stores of young children in New Zealand.
Until comparatively recently, both literary and historical criticism of the female image in medieval Russia has too often drawn a gloomy picture of inequality, repression, and suffering. With very limited exception, prerevolutionary analysis of the female image was occupied with women's legal, sociopolitical, and family status. Even the stalwarts of twentieth-century criticism, such as D. S. Likhachev and I. P. Eremin, produced no specific examination of the evolution of female characters, concentrating rather on questions of form and generic classification. Furthermore, the absence of women writers in the medieval period and a preponderance of ecclesiastical female stereotypes have encouraged primarily historically based analysis, to the detriment of the literary portrait.
No work of literature written by a woman has come down to us; indeed, it was very rare for women to be literate as access to education was denied to them. In the cases where aristocratic ladies were taught to read, this was solely for devotional purposes such as reading of the Holy Scriptures and life-stories of the Orthodox saints. Until the seventeenth century, there was little alternative reading material — only a few travel accounts and historical works. Writing (and reading) was quite simply considered neither a profession, nor a general instructive or pleasurable activity; rather, it was a sacred task undertaken by the male clergy for the teaching and dissemination of Orthodox Christianity.
The seventeenth century is generally accepted as a period of major transition in the history of Russia: the ‘Time of Troubles’ (1598–1613) eventually gave way to the dynastic continuity of the Romanovs; invasion and civil war were ended when Muscovy gathered up the reins of political centralization and power, becoming at last the undisputed capital of all Russia; and the Orthodox Church suffered many decades of heretical dissent from splintering factions before the great Schism of the second half of the century left it scarred forever. In cultural fields it was a time of transference of ecclesiastical pre-eminence to secular, and the transition from medieval to modern began in earnest. This was a period of much uncertainty and introspection, yet also of great literary innovation and creativity, and specifically, a period when the image of woman in literature underwent radical transformations which not only significantly advanced her own status, but also produced pioneering literary works, challenging accepted generic and ideological conventions.
The parameters of this essay have necessarily been limited, as space, unfortunately, does not permit detailed analysis of all areas and aspects of literature. Therefore the main focus will be upon native Russian works, wholly independent of or minimally influenced by the translated literature from Poland, Czechoslovakia and France which was beginning to appear in Russia, especially in the second half of the century. The female role in folk and oral traditions is far too extensive to approach here, but will be referred to when required.
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