There is an increasing population of youth in Japan who are being pushed to the periphery of Japanese society. These include the NEETs (Not in Employment Education or Training), the Freeters (low-skill workers in highly insecure jobs), and the hikikomori (social isolates). We argue that Japanese youth marginalization has resulted, in large part, from economic and social structural changes in post-industrial Japan. We further argue that any discussion of values and motivational processes of youth should be examined within the context of the cultural and societal forces that are marginalizing many of them. In doing so, we compare at-risk youth with mainstream youth on independence and interdependence, post-materialist attitudes, and motivational styles. Additionally, we discuss the role that religion has played on helping youth transition into adulthood in the past versus in the present. Finally, we conclude the chapter by discussing the youth volunteer movement in the wake of the March 11, 2011 earthquake and what that might represent for the values and future of Japanese youth.

In this attachment-theoretical chapter, I highlight relations between attachment and religious development in adolescence, while taking cultural implications into account. I argue that adolescence is a sensitive phase of development related to both attachment and religiosity. This period is often associated with transfer of attachment functions from parents to age-mates. In the religious realm, this period may be linked to either increased religiosity (e.g., conversion) or to disengagement from religion. During adolescence, an attachment-like relationship with God may also develop. Furthermore, on the basis of empirical studies, I discuss the implications of individual differences in attachment security for religious development in adolescence. I distinguish between two notable developmental pathways: secure attachment to religious caregivers as a basis for religious stability (“correspondence pathway”) and insecure attachment to caregivers as a basis of distress regulation through religion (“compensation pathway”). In the first case, believers are more likely to experience well-being; in the latter case, religion may serve as a protective factor in development. I also take into account possible negative effects of religion on adjustment. Finally, I discuss the cultural generalizability versus specificity of each of the central arguments in the chapter.

Over the past two decades, China has been changing dramatically toward a market-oriented society, particularly in urban areas, which may undermine the traditional cultural and religious systems. Individualistic ideologies and values are required for adjustment and success in the new competitive environment and are increasingly appreciated by individuals, especially in the young generations. This chapter focuses on cultural values and their relations with adjustment in Chinese youth from urban, rural, and rural-to-urban migrant backgrounds. There is emerging evidence suggesting differences between the urban and rural adolescents in their cultural values. Whereas group orientation and social connectedness continue to be valued among rural and urban adolescents, urban adolescents are more likely than their rural counterparts to appreciate and approve the expression of personal distinctiveness and develop a “unitary and stable” self that is separate from social context. Moreover, among urban, but not rural or migrant, adolescents, values of uniqueness have become important for the development of social status in the peer group and school achievement. As a future direction, it will be interesting to explore how adolescents in China integrate diverse values in their adaptation to the changing sociocultural context.

This chapter discusses why research on adolescent development will benefit from a focus on values and religion using a culture-sensitive approach. In the first part, the relations among culture, values, and religion in adolescent development are briefly summarized. The second part deals with the topic of adolescent values, and the third part addresses religion and religiosity. Each part discusses relevant research from a multidisciplinary perspective and highlights major issues, results, and gaps in sociological and psychological research. Finally, the theoretical and empirical contributions of this volume are discussed, and suggestions are made for future research in order to achieve a better understanding of adolescent development in a changing cultural context.