Contrafreeloading (CFL) refers to animals’ tendency to prefer obtaining food through effort rather than accessing food that is freely available. Researchers have proposed various hypotheses to explain this intriguing phenomenon, but few studies have provided a comprehensive analysis of the factors influencing this behaviour. In this study, we observed the choice of alternative food containers in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) to investigate their CFL tendencies and the effects of pre-training, food deprivation, and effort required on the CFL tasks. The results showed that budgerigars did not exhibit significant difference in their first choices or the time interacting with less challenging versus more challenging food containers. Moreover, when evaluating each budgerigar’s CFL level, only half of them were identified as strong contrafreeloaders. Thus, we suggest that budgerigars exhibit an intermediate CFL level that lies somewhere between a strong tendency and the absence of such behaviour. Furthermore, we also found that food-deprived budgerigars tended to select less challenging food containers, and pre-trained budgerigars were more likely to choose highly challenging food containers than moderately challenging food containers, which means that the requirement of only a reasonable effort (access to food from moderately challenging food containers in this study) and the experience of pre-training act to enhance their CFL levels, whereas the requirement of greater effort and the experience of food deprivation act to decrease their CFL levels. Studying animal CFL can help understand why animals choose to expend effort to obtain food rather than accessing it for free, and it also has implications for setting feeding environments to enhance the animal welfare of captive and domesticated animals.

Network meta-analysis (NMA), also known as mixed treatment comparison meta-analysis or multiple treatments meta-analysis, extends conventional pairwise meta-analysis by simultaneously synthesizing multiple interventions in a single integrated analysis. Despite the growing popularity of NMA within comparative effectiveness research, it comes with potential challenges. For example, within-study correlations among treatment comparisons are rarely reported in the published literature. Yet, these correlations are pivotal for valid statistical inference. As demonstrated in earlier studies, ignoring these correlations can inflate mean squared errors of the resulting point estimates and lead to inaccurate standard error estimates. This article introduces a composite likelihood-based approach that ensures accurate statistical inference without requiring knowledge of the within-study correlations. The proposed method is computationally robust and efficient, with substantially reduced computational time compared to the state-of-the-science methods implemented in R packages. The proposed method was evaluated through extensive simulations and applied to two important applications including an NMA comparing interventions for primary open-angle glaucoma, and another comparing treatments for chronic prostatitis and chronic pelvic pain syndrome.

Language control in the bilingual brain has remained in the limelight of research over the past decades. However, the mechanisms underlying bilingual language control may be more intricate than typically assumed due to the hierarchical nature of language. This study aimed to investigate the dynamics of bilingual language control at the phonetic level. Participants, who were speakers of Chinese, English and German, named the letters of the alphabet in English (L2) or German (L3) following an alternating language-switching paradigm. Two sets of letters were selected, differing in the phonological similarity of their pronunciation across the two languages, thereby allowing the exploration of cross-language phonological influences. Each participant completed two sessions of letter-naming tasks. In one session, seven phonologically similar letters were randomly repeated either in single-language blocks or in alternate-language blocks. In the other session, seven phonologically dissimilar letters were similarly manipulated. The results indicated local inhibition, reflected by switch costs and global inhibition, reflected by mixing costs. Reversed language dominance, another indicator of global inhibition, was not observed. However, there was a tendency for larger global inhibition to be applied to the more dominant language. Moreover, there was significantly faster naming for phonologically similar letters compared to dissimilar ones, suggesting a facilitation effect for both English and German, irrespective of whether letter naming occurred in single- or alternate-language blocks. These findings provided evidence for the role of inhibitory and facilitative mechanisms at the phonetic level, suggesting language-specific control in the bilingual brain and underscoring the complexity and dynamics of managing language control across multiple levels of processing.

Rhopalosiphum padi is an important grain pest, causing severe losses during crop production. As a systemic insecticide, flonicamid can control piercing-sucking pests efficiently. In our study, the lethal effects of flonicamid on the biological traits of R. padi were investigated via a life table approach. Flonicamid is highly efficiently toxic to R. padi, with an LC50 of 9.068 mg L−1. The adult longevity and fecundity of the R. padi F0 generation were markedly reduced under the LC25 and LC50 concentrations of flonicamid exposure. In addition, negative transgenerational effects on R. padi were observed under exposure to lethal concentrations of flonicamid, with noticeable decreases in the reproductive period, adult longevity, total longevity, and total fecundity of the F1 generation under the LC25 concentration of flonicamid. Furthermore, the third nymph stage (N3), preadult stage, duration of the adult pre-reproductive period, duration of the total pre-reproductive period, reproductive period, adult longevity, total longevity, and total fecundity of the F1 generation were significantly lower under treatment with the LC50 concentration of flonicamid. The life table parameters were subsequently analysed, revealing that the intrinsic rate of increase (rm) and the net reproductive rate (R0) were significantly lower but that the finite rate of increase (λ) and the mean generation time (T) were not significantly different under the LC25 and LC50 concentrations of flonicamid. These data are beneficial for grain aphid control and are critical for exploring the role of flonicamid in the integrated management of this key pest.

Broadband frequency-tripling pulses with high energy are attractive for scientific research, such as inertial confinement fusion, but are difficult to scale up. Third-harmonic generation via nonlinear frequency conversion, however, remains a trade-off between bandwidth and conversion efficiency. Based on gradient deuterium deuterated potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDxH2-xPO4, DKDP) crystal, here we report the generation of frequency-tripling pulses by rapid adiabatic passage with a low-coherence laser driver facility. The efficiency dependence on the phase-matching angle in a Type-II configuration is studied. We attained an output at 352 nm with a bandwidth of 4.4 THz and an efficiency of 36%. These results, to the best of our knowledge, represent the first experimental demonstration of gradient deuterium DKDP crystal in obtaining frequency-tripling pulses. Our research paves a new way for developing high-efficiency, large-bandwidth frequency-tripling technology.

When a word is being translated, its immediately adjacent lexical items may impact the translation of the target word. However, the impact of adjacent lexical items on the oral translation of a target word situated in central vision remains unexplored. This behavioral study used a bilingual version of the flanker paradigm to examine the impact of within- and cross-language semantic effects on oral word translation. Unbalanced bilinguals were presented with a central target word that was flanked by two flanking words on either side. The target-flanker relations were manipulated as a function of semantic relatedness (identical, related and unrelated) and language congruency (congruent and incongruent). The task was to orally translate the target word from L1 to L2 (forward translation) in one session and from L2 to L1 (backward translation) in the other while ignoring the flanker words. Results showed faster responses for forward compared to backward translation. Moreover, in within-language (congruent) but not in cross-language (incongruent) contexts, semantic priming effects were observed in both directions of translation, with the effects being larger for backward than forward translation. Additionally, substantial cross-language semantic repetition priming effects were obtained. The findings are discussed within the framework of a two-process account for oral word translation.

External seeded free-electron lasers (FELs) have exhibited substantial progress in diverse applications over the last decade. However, the frequency up-conversion efficiency in single-stage seeded FELs, particularly in high-gain harmonic generation (HGHG), remains constrained to a modest level. This limitation restricts its capability to conduct experiments within the ‘water window’. This paper presents a novel method for generating coherent X-ray FEL pulses in the water window region based on the HGHG scheme with multi-stage harmonic cascade. Without any additional modifications to the HGHG configuration, simulation results demonstrate the generation of intense 3 nm coherent FEL radiation using an external ultraviolet seed laser. This indicates an increase of the harmonic conversion number to approximately 90. A preliminary experiment is performed to evaluate the feasibility of this method. The proposed approach could potentially serve as an efficient method to broaden the wavelength coverage accessible to both existing and planned seeded X-ray FEL facilities.

In this paper, we investigate Kolmogorov-type theorems for small perturbations of degenerate Hamiltonian systems. These systems are index by a parameter ξ as $ H(y,x,\xi) = \langle\omega(\xi),y\rangle {+ \bar h(y,\xi)}+\varepsilon P(y,x,\xi,\varepsilon) $, where ɛ > 0. We assume that the frequency mapping $\omega(\cdot)$, $\bar h(y,\cdot)=O(|y|^2)$ and the perturbation $\varepsilon P(y,x,\cdot, \varepsilon)$ maintain Hölder continuity about ξ. We prove that the persistent invariant tori retain the same frequency as those of the unperturbed tori, under a certain topological degree condition and a weak convexity condition for the frequency mapping. Notably, this paper presents, to our understanding, pioneering results on the KAM theorem under such conditions with only assumption of Hölder continuous dependence of frequency mapping ω on the parameter.

In a two-dimensional plane, entire solutions of the Allen–Cahn type equation with a finite Morse index necessarily have finite ends. In the case that the nonlinearity is a sine function, all the finite-end solutions have been classified. However, for the classical Allen–Cahn nonlinearity, the structure of the moduli space of these solutions remains unknown. We construct in this paper new finite-end solutions to the Allen–Cahn equation, which will be called fence of saddle solutions, by gluing saddle solutions together. Our construction can be generalized to the case of gluing multiple four-end solutions, with some of their ends being almost parallel.

In recent years, dangerous gas leakage events occur frequently. Rapid and accurate location of gas leakage sources by mobile robots is the key to avoid the expansion of disasters. In order to solve the problem of discontinuous gas concentration gradient and sparse gas environment in three-dimensional space, particle filter, and whale swarm optimization algorithm are integrated to locate gas source. Firstly, the Z-shape search and comb search are used to locate the plume, and then, the particle filter algorithm is combined with the whale optimization method to guide the particle movement, and the random inertial disturbance term is designed to improve the convergence speed and search accuracy of the algorithm. Experimental results in three-dimensional environment show that the proposed information-driven particle filter whale optimization hybrid algorithm effectively guides the robot in localizing gas source within a certain range, significantly enhancing both the efficiency and accuracy of localization compared to other algorithms.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles in regulating salt tolerance in Dongxiang wild rice (DXWR, Oryza rufipogon Griff.). The development of salt-responsive miRNA-simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers will significantly bolster research on DXWR, providing novel tools for exploring salt-tolerant genetic resources and advancing the development of salt-tolerant rice varieties. In the present study, a total of 137 miRNA-SSR markers were successfully developed, specifically derived from miRNAs responsive to salt stress in DXWR. Subsequently, a subset of 20 markers was randomly selected for validation across three distinct DXWR populations, along with 35 modern rice varieties. Notably, 13 of these markers exhibited remarkable polymorphism. The polymorphic markers collectively amplified 52 SSR loci, averaging four alleles per locus. The polymorphism information content values associated with these loci spanned from 0.23 to 0.70, with a mean value of 0.49. Particularly noteworthy is the miR162a-SSR marker, which demonstrated distinct allelic patterns and holds potential as a diagnostic marker for discriminating the salt-tolerant rice varieties from the non-tolerant varieties. This study provides a valuable tool for genetic analysis and precision breeding, facilitating the identification and utilization of valuable salt-tolerant genetic resources.

Reinsurers may default when they have to pay large claims to insurers but are unable to fulfill their obligations due to various reasons such as catastrophic events, underwriting losses, inadequate capitalization, or financial mismanagement. This paper studies the problem of optimal reinsurance design from the perspectives of both the insurer and reinsurer when the insurer faces the potential default risk of the reinsurer. If the insurer aims to minimize the convex distortion risk measure of his retained loss, we prove the optimality of a stop-loss treaty when the promised ceded loss function is charged by the expected value premium principle and the reinsurer offers partial recovery in the event of default. For any fixed premium loading set by the reinsurer, we then derive the explicit expressions of optimal deductible levels for three special distortion functions, including the TVaR, Gini, and PH transform distortion functions. Under these three explicit distortion risk measures adopted by the insurer, we seek the optimal safety loading for the reinsurer by maximizing her net profit where the reserve capital is determined by the TVaR measure and the cost is governed by the expectation. This procedure ultimately leads to the Bowley solution between the insurer and the reinsurer. We provide several numerical examples to illustrate the theoretical findings. Sensitivity analyses demonstrate how different settings of default probability, recovery rate, and safety loading affect the optimal deductible values. Simulation studies are also implemented to analyze the effects induced by the default probability and recovery rate on the Bowley solution.

This study proposes a novel super-resolution (or SR) framework for generating high-resolution turbulent boundary layer (TBL) flow from low-resolution inputs. The framework combines a super-resolution generative adversarial neural network (SRGAN) with down-sampling modules (DMs), integrating the residual of the continuity equation into the loss function. The DMs selectively filter out components with excessive energy dissipation in low-resolution fields prior to the super-resolution process. The framework iteratively applies the SRGAN and DM procedure to fully capture the energy cascade of multi-scale flow structures, collectively termed the SRGAN-based energy cascade reconstruction framework (EC-SRGAN). Despite being trained solely on turbulent channel flow data (via ‘zero-shot transfer’), EC-SRGAN exhibits remarkable generalization in predicting TBL small-scale velocity fields, accurately reproducing wavenumber spectra compared to direct numerical simulation (DNS) results. Furthermore, a super-resolution core is trained at a specific super-resolution ratio. By leveraging this pretrained super-resolution core, EC-SRGAN efficiently reconstructs TBL fields at multiple super-resolution ratios from various levels of low-resolution inputs, showcasing strong flexibility. By learning turbulent scale invariance, EC-SRGAN demonstrates robustness across different TBL datasets. These results underscore the potential of EC-SRGAN for generating and predicting wall turbulence with high flexibility, offering promising applications in addressing diverse TBL-related challenges.

Syphilis remains a serious public health problem in mainland China that requires attention, modelling to describe and predict its prevalence patterns can help the government to develop more scientific interventions. The seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average (SARIMA) model, long short-term memory network (LSTM) model, hybrid SARIMA-LSTM model, and hybrid SARIMA-nonlinear auto-regressive models with exogenous inputs (SARIMA-NARX) model were used to simulate the time series data of the syphilis incidence from January 2004 to November 2023 respectively. Compared to the SARIMA, LSTM, and SARIMA-LSTM models, the median absolute deviation (MAD) value of the SARIMA-NARX model decreases by 352.69%, 4.98%, and 3.73%, respectively. The mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) value decreases by 73.7%, 23.46%, and 13.06%, respectively. The root mean square error (RMSE) value decreases by 68.02%, 26.68%, and 23.78%, respectively. The mean absolute error (MAE) value decreases by 70.90%, 23.00%, and 21.80%, respectively. The hybrid SARIMA-NARX and SARIMA-LSTM methods predict syphilis cases more accurately than the basic SARIMA and LSTM methods, so that can be used for governments to develop long-term syphilis prevention and control programs. In addition, the predicted cases still maintain a fairly high level of incidence, so there is an urgent need to develop more comprehensive prevention strategies.

As a member of the Scathophagidae family, Scathophaga stercoraria (S. stercoraria) is widely distributed globally and is closely associated with animal feces. It is also a species of great interest to many scientific studies. However, its phylogenetic relationships are poorly understood. In this study, S. stercoraria was found in plateau pikas for the first time. The potential cause of its presence in the plateau pikas was discussed and it was speculated that the presence of S. stercoraria was related to the yak feces. In addition, 2 nuclear genes (18SrDNA and 28SrDNA), 1 mitochondrial gene (COI), and the complete mitochondrial genome of S. stercoraria were sequenced. Phylogenetic trees constructed based on 13 Protein coding genes (13PCGs), 18S and 28S rDNA showed that S. stercoraria is closely related to the Calliphoridae family; phylogenetic results based on COI suggest that within the family Scathophagidae, S. stercoraria is more closely related to the genus Leptopa, Micropselapha, Parallelomma and Americina. Divergence times estimated using the COI gene suggest that the divergence formation of the genus Scathophaga is closely related to changes in biogeographic scenarios and potentially driven by a combination of uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) and dramatic climate changes. These results provide valuable information for further studies on the phylogeny and differentiation of the Scathophaga genus in the future.

This research communication reports the effects of a compound enzyme preparation consisting of fibrolytic (cellulase 3500 CU/g, xylanase 2000 XU/g, β-glucanase 17 500 GU/g) and amylolytic (amylase 37 000 AU/g) enzymes on nutrient intake, rumen fermentation, serum parameters and production performance in primiparous early-lactation (47 ± 2 d) dairy cows. Twenty Holstein–Friesian cows in similar body condition scores were randomly divided into control (CON, n = 10) and experimental (EXP, n = 10) groups in a completely randomized single-factor design. CON was fed a basal total mixed ration diet and EXP was dietary supplemented with compound enzyme preparation at 70 g/cow/d. The experiment lasted 4 weeks, with 3 weeks for adaptation and then 1 week for measurement. Enzyme supplementation significantly increased diet non-fibrous carbohydrates (NFC) content as well as dry matter intake (DMI) and NFC intake (P < 0.05). EXP had increased ruminal butyrate and isobutyrate percentages (P < 0.01) but decreased propionate and valerate percentages (P < 0.05), as well as increased serum alkaline phosphatase activity and albumin concentration (P ≤ 0.01). Additionally, EXP had increased milk yield (0.97 kg/d), 4% fat corrected milk yield and energy corrected milk yield, as well as milk fat and protein yield (P < 0.01). In conclusion, dietary supplementation with a fibrolytic and amylolytic compound enzyme preparation increased diet NFC content, DMI and NFC intake, affected rumen fermentation by increasing butyrate proportion at the expense of propionate, and enhanced milk performance in primiparous early-lactation dairy cows.

Bilinguals may choose to speak a language either at their own will or in response to an external demand, but the underlying neural mechanisms in the two contexts is poorly understood. In the present study, Chinese–English bilinguals named pairs of pictures in three conditions: during forced-switch, the naming language altered between pictures 1 and 2. During non-switch, the naming language used was the same. During free-naming, either the same or different languages were used at participants' own will. While behavioural switching costs were observed during free-naming and forced-switching, neuroimaging results showed that forced language selection (i.e., forced-switch and non-switch) is associated with left-lateralized frontal activations, which have been implicated in inhibitory control. Free language selection (i.e., free-naming), however, was associated with fronto-parietal activations, which have been implicated in self-initiated behaviours. These findings offer new insights into the neural differentiation of language control in forced and free language selection contexts.

OBJECTIVES/GOALS: Many providers share patients resulting in networks where clinical information is exchanged, and which can impact the quality and efficiency of care. Here we analyzed the network properties of a primary care service area (PCSA) in Harris County TX, motivating our ongoing analysis of how they are associated with disparities in cancer screening. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: Data.All providers (n=731, Medicare 2018) from the PCSA with the most providers in Harris County TX, with gender, specialty, and the number of shared patients. Method. Modeled the data as a network consisting of provider nodes, connected in pairs by edges if they shared >11 patients (an empirically-determined threshold). Analyzed the network structure using (1) modularity maximization and its significance to identify densely-connected communities; (2) degree centralization to measure whether a few providers shared many patients, and betweenness centralization to measure whether a few providers connected densely-connected communities; and (3) chi-squared to measure if pairs of connected providers tended to be of the same gender compared to disconnected provider pairs. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: The results (Fig. 1, http://www.skbhavnani.com/DIVA/Images/Fig-1-SNA-Network.jpg [http://www.skbhavnani.com/DIVA/Images/Fig-1-SNA-Network.jpg]) revealed a fragmented network with 120 small components (connected subnetworks, not part of any larger connected subnetwork), and 1 large component. The large component (n=244) had strong and significant modularity (Q=0.73, z=53.13, P<.001) with communities of providers that shared more patients than expected by chance; low degree centralization (dc=0.11) suggesting that no provider dominated patient sharing, in addition to high and significant betweenness centralization (bc=0.5, P<.01) suggesting that a few providers were responsible for connecting the densely-connected communities; and a significant gender bias (X2=10.05, df=1, P< .01) among those that shared patients, versus those that did not. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE: The analysis revealed a specific type of vulnerability (betweenness) for network fragmentation, and a gender bias in how patients were shared. These results motivated our ongoing analysis on how the network properties are associated with disparity in cancer screening within PCSAs across Texas.