De-Linking From Western Epistemologies: Using Guanxi-Type Relationships to Attract and Retain Hotel Guests in the Middle East

ABSTRACT Relationships are widely recognized as key to business success in the form of both informal interpersonal networks and formal organizational relationships. While Chinese personal networks (guanxi) have attracted scholars’ interest, the concept has not been fully investigated or understood in other contexts, especially the Middle East, where personal networks fulfill some of the same roles. The underlying socio-cultural formulae of the distinctive cultural dimensions that influence relationship formation in the Middle East also remain under-explored. This research therefore investigates the dimensions of guanxi-type relationships in the Middle East and introduces a new model integrating these relationships into the existing relationship marketing framework, enabling firms to harness personal networks for organizational gain, in turn generating customer satisfaction and retention. Using empirical data from a survey of 637 hotel guests in 17 countries – drawn from a unique target population of guests introduced to Middle Eastern hotels via personal relationships – we show how guanxi-type relationships influence organizational relationships and improve satisfaction and retention. Our significant contributions to theory and practice include extending a holistic understanding of guanxi, enhancing knowledge of its dimensions in the Middle East, and providing managers with clear evidence for a hybrid system of guanxi-type and organizational relationships. 摘要 人际关系被广泛认为是商业成功的关键，它包括非正式的人际网络和正式的组织关系。虽然中国的个人网络(关系)已经引起了学者的兴趣，但这一概念在其他背景下还没有得到充分的研究或理解，尤其是在个人网络发挥着同样作用的中东地区。影响中东关系形成的独特文化维度中的潜在社会文化公式仍未得到充分探究。因此，本研究探究了中东地区关系类型的维度，并提出了一种新模式，将这些关系整合到现有的关系营销框架中，使企业能够利用个人网络为组织获取利益，进而产生顾客满意度和留存。通过对17个国家637名通过个人关系介绍到中东酒店的特定目标顾客群的调查，我们发现了关系型关系如何影响组织关系，并提高顾客满意度和留存。我们在理论和实践方面的重要贡献包括：扩展了对关系的整体理解，增强了对中东关系这一维度的认识，为管理者提供了关系型和组织关系混合系统的清晰证据。 АННОТАЦИЯ Социальные взаимоотношения, как неформальные личные связи, так и формальные организационные отношения, признаны ключом к успеху в деловой сфере. В то время как китайские личные связи (guanxi) привлекают значительный интерес ученых, данная концепция не полностью изучена или раскрыта в других контекстах, особенно на Ближнем Востоке, где личные отношения играют похожую роль. Основные социокультурные нормы в отдельных культурных измерениях, которые влияют на формирование отношений на Ближнем Востоке, также остаются недостаточно изученными. Таким образом, это исследование изучает особенности отношений типа guanxi на Ближнем Востоке и представляет новую модель, которая интегрирует эти отношения в существующую структуру маркетинга взаимоотношений, что позволяет компаниям использовать личные связи для получения выгоды в организации и, в свою очередь, обеспечивает удовлетворенность и удержание клиентов. На основании эмпирических данных из опроса 637 гостей в отелях 17 стран, который был проведен в уникальной целевой группе гостей, познакомившихся с отелями Ближнего Востока с помощью личных связей, мы показываем, как отношения типа guanxi могут влиять на отношения в организации и повышать удовлетворенность и удержание гостей. Наша работа вносит значительный вклад в теорию и практику, а именно расширяет целостное представление о понятии guanxi, углубляет знания о его аспектах на Ближнем Востоке и предоставляет руководителям ясные свидетельства о гибридной взаимосвязи отношений типа guanxi и организационных отношений. RESUMEN Las relaciones son ampliamente reconocidas como la clave del éxito empresarial, en la forma tanto de redes interpersonales informales como de relacionales organizacionales formales. Mientras que las redes personales chinas (guanxi) han atraído el interés académico, los conceptos no han sido investigados plenamente o entendidos en otros contextos, especialmente en el Medio Oriente, donde las redes personales cumplen algunas de las mismas funciones. Las formulas socioculturales subyacentes de las dimensiones culturales distintivas que influencian la formación de relaciones en el Medio Oriente también siguen siendo poco exploradas. Esta investigación por lo tanto investiga las dimensiones de las relaciones tipo guanxi en el Medio Oriente e introduce un nuevo modelo integrando estas relaciones en el marco del marketing relacional existente, permitiendo a las empresas aprovechar sus redes personales para beneficios organizacionales, a su vez generando satisfacción y retención de los clientes. Usando datos empíricos de una encuesta a 637 huéspedes de hoteles en 17 países -a partir de una población objetivo excepcional de huéspedes presentados por primera vez a los hoteles del Medio Oriente por medio de relaciones personales – mostramos como las relaciones tipo guanxi pueden influenciar las relaciones organizacionales, y mejorar la satisfacción y retención. Nuestras contribuciones relevantes a la teoría y práctica incluyen la ampliación de la comprensión holística del guanxi, la mejora del conocimiento de sus dimensiones en el Medio Oriente, y aporta a los gerentes con evidencias claras sobre un sistema híbrido de relaciones tipo guanxi y organizacionales.


INTRODUCTION
It is widely accepted globally that establishing, developing, and maintaining quality relationships with customers is important when conducting business, especially in complex and highly competitive markets (Ndubisi & Wah, 2005;Weir, Sultan, & Van De Bunt, 2016). However, the way these relationships are nurtured and deepened varies in different cultures, with notable differences between the East and Weir, 2006aWeir, , 2006b, or other developing states grounded in unique political, cultural, social, and economic settings. Li, Zhou, Zhou, and Yang (2019) support this view, arguing that further research on guanxi is needed not only in China but also in the emerging global context. The lack of studies on the Middle East has persisted despite substantial evidence of its unique business and cultural practices (Sharma, 2010). Middle Eastern culture has high collectivistic values and strong long-term orientation (Hofstede, 2001), making it culturally very distinct from the West. Furthermore, an extensive review by Samaha, Beck, and Palmatier (2014) of relationship marketing studies from 36 countries revealed great differences in the effects of relational mediators such as trust and customer satisfaction in different countries, contexts, and cultures.
Overall, inadequate attention has been paid to better understanding guanxitype networks and how they influence business in the Middle Eastern context (Hutchings & Weir, 2006b). Berger and Herstein (2012) argue that a clearer understanding of the components and operation of guanxi-like relationships in the business world is essential in order to grasp its central importance in a culture where the first rule of business is socialization. Some scholars have specifically encouraged further research on guanxi-type relationships in the Middle East. For example, Weir et al. (2016) argue that, given the central importance of interpersonal relationships in collectivist cultures, their role in the development of relationship strategies should be explored.
Secondly, alongside this shortage of guanxi-based research in the culturallydistinct geographical context of the Middle East, there is a general lack of such studies in the specific context of the hotel sector despite its importance. Previous studies have focused on a range of fields such as marketing (Lee, Tang, Yip, & Sharma, 2017;Shaalan, Reast, Johnson, & Tourky, 2013), supply chain management (Geng, Mansouri, Aktas, & Yen, 2017), organizational learning (Chung, Yang, & Huang, 2015;Leung, Chan, Chung, & Ngai, 2011), operation management (Wu & Chiu, 2016), entrepreneurship (Chen, Chang, & Lee, 2015;Phan, Zhou, & Abrahamson, 2010), human resources management (Ren & Chadee, 2017), and strategic management (Cao, Baker, & Schniederjans, 2014). However, little is known about the role and impact of guanxi-type relationships in different cultures in the hotel industry. The few exceptions include Chen (2017), who contributed a contextual interpretation of guanxi, but only in the context of the development of Chinese tourism.
Thirdly, the interplay between guanxi-type relationships and relationship marketing remains under-researched, especially in the hotel and tourism context. The extent to which guanxi-type relationships could complement relationship marketing has not been fully understood, and no model has empirically integrated guanxi theory into the existing relationship marketing framework, even though many scholars have suggested the importance of this link (Björkman & Kock, 1995;Geddie, DeFranco, & Geddie, 2002Shaalan et al., 2013). While the two phenomena are fundamentally different, a detailed understanding of the relationship between them is highly relevant to achieving specific business objectives. Some past research has shown that guanxi-type relationships can be considered an important strategic asset (Lee et al., 2017), while other studies have noted that the personal relationship between a potential customer and a firm's representative (employee or loyal customer) typically develops before a transaction occurs (Yau, Lee, Chow, Sin & Alan, 2000). Some previous theoretical attempts have been made to compare and link guanxi-type relationships and relationship marketing (e.g., Geddie et al., 2002;Shaalan et al., 2013), but the exact nature of their dimensions and relationship remains unclear. This lack of knowledge has particular relevance in the hotel industry and other parts of the tourism and hospitality sector, given the potential impact on guest satisfaction and retention.
This study answers these calls for specific research in the Middle East, as well as filling the other gaps in the literature highlighted above. Overall, it seeks to advance understanding of guanxi as a holistic and global construct. This article addresses all these gaps in knowledge by exploring the role that guanxi-type relationships play in a non-Western context, focusing specifically on hotel guests in the Middle East who were introduced through interpersonal networks. This unique research population enables us to understand the role of guanxi-type relationships in attracting new guests, and the effect on customer satisfaction and retention. Importantly, we go beyond this to investigate how guanxi-type relationships fit into the existing framework of the relationship marketing framework in the Middle Eastern context, and to explore whether guanxi-type relationships can be transformed into organizational relationships, which in turn generate customer satisfaction and/or retention. To achieve these objectives, we develop and test a conceptual model using inputs from many well-established but diverse viewpoints. To our knowledge, this is the first study to seek to build a unified model integrating guanxi-type relationships into the relationship marketing framework.
In the following sections, we present the theoretical background of the main constructs, elaborate on research gaps, and introduce the proposed research model and hypotheses. The methods are then explained, followed by the presentation of the results of the data analysis and a discussion of the main findings. Finally, implications, limitations, and avenues for future research are presented in the conclusion.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESES Theoretical Foundations of Guanxi
Establishing strong relationships with customers is regarded as key to business success in today's complex and highly competitive markets. One of the approaches used to achieve this is guanxi, a Chinese term denoting interpersonal networks that have considerable significance in most facets of relationships (Jia, You, & Du, 2012). While guanxi is not sufficient by itself to persuade customers to buy products (Tsang, 1998), it is a significant foundational element to business relationships, whose main aim is to retain customers (Tseng, 2007). It has been described as a 'Chinese cultural phenomenon' (Fan, 2002: 374) whose multiple meanings go beyond the closest English equivalents of 'relationship' or 'connection' (Huang, 2008: 468). For example, it can be used to refer to the relationship between people with shared characteristics, active and repeated contact between people, and infrequent, direct communication with a person (Bian, 1994: 974). Three distinguishing qualities have been observed: familiarity or intimacy, trust, and mutual obligation (Bian, 1997;Burt et al., 2018;Burt & Burzynska, 2017;Burt & Opper, 2017;Li et al., 2019).
Guanxi has been conceptualized in a number of ways in the literature, firstly as a relationship. For example, Alston (1989: 28) defines it as a special relationship between two persons with an unlimited exchange of favors, each of them being fully committed to the other; Osland (1990: 8) describes it as a special relationship between one person who needs something and another who has the ability to give something; and Yang (1988: 409) regards it as pre-existing relationships between classmates, people with shared origins and/or relatives, workplace superiors/subordinates, etc. A second set of conceptualizations regards guanxi as ties. Jacobs (1979) defines it as particularistic ties based on shared attributes, and Bian (2006: 312) describes it as a particular and sentimental tie with the potential to facilitate exchanges of favors between the connected parties. Bian (2018) identifies five types of guanxi ties (connectivity, sentimental connection, sentiment-derived instrumental ties, instrumental-particular ties, and obligational ties), which vary in form and significance depending on the situation. Guanxi has no formal network structure, but involves strong ties between family members, close kin, and long-term friends, who seek to protect each other from a hostile context (Burt & Opper, 2017;Zhao & Burt, 2018). A third conceptualization, viewing guanxi as a problem-solving mechanism, is offered by Fan (2002: 372), who views it as a process of social interactions between two individuals who may or may not have a special relationship: if one asks for assistance, the other provides it or seeks further assistance from other connections. Many authors support and use Fan's definition (e.g., Chen & Chen, 2004;Luo, 2007;Zhang & Zhang, 2006). Other interpretations have cast guanxi as interpersonal friendships (Ang & Leong, 2000); interpersonal connections (Xin & Pearce, 1996: 1641; reciprocal exchanges (Hwang, 1987); tight, close-knit networks, and a gate or pass (Yeung & Tung, 1996: 54).
We adopt a broad definition of guanxi as an informal norm of interpersonal exchange that regulates and facilitates privileged access to sentimental or instrumental resources at the dyadic or network level (Bian, 2018;Li et al., 2019).

Features of Guanxi
A number of significant features underlie the cultivation, use, and preservation of guanxi. Guanxi networks are essentially social in nature (Arias, 1998;Björkman & Kock, 1995). The origins of Chinese guanxi have been traced back to Confucian teachings and principles (Bian & Ang, 1997;Kienzle & Shadur, 1997), which take a long-term view of social interactions. Guanxi can therefore last a lifetime (Li et al., 2019) and can even pass from one generation to another if maintained (Luo, 2007). Guanxi is usually considered at the individual level (Chung, 2019;Tsang, 1998) with relationships built among people, not organizations. However, the use of guanxi at the organizational level has increased, since employees are increasingly encouraged to use their personal guanxi for organizational purposes (Luo, 1997). Context is highly relevant: giving a gift in one situation might be accepted as a customary practice, while in a different situation it might be seen as a bribe (Luo, 2007). Guanxi's utilitarian core, whereby favors can be exchanged as a result of interpersonal links (Bian, 2018), can operate at the organizational level, enabling organizations to benefit from each other's guanxi if there is complementarity of resources and a mutual strategic need (Luo, 2007;Zhang, Kimbu, Lin, & Ngoasong, 2020). Guanxi can also be transferred to a third party, if one person in relationship with two others is willing to link them (Luo, 1997;Tsang, 1998). Members of guanxi networks are committed to each other through an unwritten but mutually understood code of equity and reciprocity (Luo, 1997;Zhang et al., 2020). Disrespecting this code or refusing to return a favor can seriously damage a person's social reputation, leading to loss of face (Luo, 1997). Overall, guanxi's multiple features are indicative of rich and comprehensive networks with both cultural and social elements.

Guanxi-Type Relationships Outside China
Many of the features of guanxi are not unique to Chinese society, but exist to some extent in all societies, including those in the Middle East (Hutchings & Weir, 2006a, 2006b and the West (Burt, 2019;Burt & Burzynska, 2017). However, the ways in which these relationships are nurtured and developed vary considerably, with notable differences between East and West (Fainshmidt et al., 2018;Flambard-Ruaud, 2005;Kabasakal & Bodur, 2002;Weir et al., 2016;Yen et al., 2007). Even Burt (2019: 31), who argues that such networks exist in China and in Western societies, highlights a significant substantive difference between them: those in China are more hierarchical and more family-centric than those in the West. Burt and Burzynska (2017: 221-222) support this distinction, arguing that Chinese and Western networks have significant differences, while both strongly featuring trust and achievement.
Guanxi-type relationships in the Middle East. In the Middle East context, guanxi-type relationships are different. The tribal framework is preeminent: Arabs' heavy reliance on these networks draws on historical cultural values and traditions which are totally different from networking in the West (ALHussan, Al-Husan, & Alhesan, 2017; ALHussan, AL-Husan, & Chavi, 2014). Arab society has been shown to 6 A. Shaalan et al. rely heavily on these networks (Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1993;Cunningham, Sarayrah, & Sarayrah, 1994;Hutchings & Weir, 2006a, 2006bMetcalfe, 2006;Weir & Hutchings, 2005), which can be characterized as a strategy for exchanging benefits. The unique features of Arab networks, such as origins, closeness, characteristics, density of usage, etc., can be partly attributed to the specific characteristics and cultural factors of Middle Eastern societies (Barakat, 1993;Hutchings & Weir, 2006a). Since families are viewed as the fundamental unit of a society (Barakat, 1993;Hutchings & Weir, 2006a), their influence extends from basic decisionmaking (Barakat, 1993) to business and management practices (Hutchings & Weir, 2006a, 2006bMetcalfe, 2006), education, government, and society at large (ALHussan et al., 2017;Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1993), and includes non-material gains such as licences, scholarships, parliamentary seats, and other benefits that 'might enhance the well-being or social status of a person seeking it' (Pawelka & Boeckh 2004: 40). The powerful influence of tribal connections in the Arab world can also be seen in the way relationships are overseen and arguments resolved. Generally, social networks underpin this process too, with a delegate acting as mediator between tribes in dispute (Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1993). People with significant wealth or power use social networks extensively with a focus on their ultimate goals (Cunningham & Sarayrah, 1993). As Metcalfe (2006) observed: 'Working relations in the Arab world are influenced by the ability of an individual or an entity to be able to move in the right channels of power and influence to accomplish something'. This heavy dependence on tribal and family ties can be contrasted with Burt and Opper's (2017) findings from China that entrepreneurs' primary source of support was more likely to be long-standing contacts than relatives: around 90% of the contacts providing support in the first decade of a business were non-family members. It can be argued that a further distinction between guanxi-type relationships in the Middle East and those in the West and China is the underpinning of Islamic ethics and values (Hutchings & Weir, 2006a;Weir & Hutchings, 2005: 92). In the Arab world, religion is a guide to action, as it determines action in every aspect of people's lives (Hutchings & Weir, 2006a: 146). Most Arabs are Muslims, and Islam 'shapes people's mindsets and opinions at a very deep level in addition to being responsible for many of the behavioral patterns that can be observed throughout the region' (Al-Omari, 2003: 77). Likewise, the origins of Chinese guanxi networks have been traced back to Confucian teachings and principles which guided behavioral patterns (Bian & Ang, 1997;Kienzle & Shadur, 1997).
Overall, it can therefore be seen that social networks in the Arab world are significantly more important than mere connections: they are the route to securing individual and business benefits, and they are ubiquitous. The dimensions of guanxi-type relationships in general, and how they differ between Chinese and Middle Eastern cultures, are explored in the next section.

Dimensions of Guanxi-Type Relationships
Many studies have discussed the dimensions of guanxi (Chen, 2001;Tsang, 1998;Wang, 2007;Yang, 1994;Yau et al., 2000), illustrating it as a multi-dimensional construct. While there is no agreement about its dimensions, there is wide recognitionalbeit in a fragmented mannerthat its six main variables are bonding, empathy, reciprocity, personal trust, face, and affection. These will therefore be used in this study.
Bonding. Bonding is a social or business practice that functions by means of commonalities and common backgrounds, which is used to eliminate doubt between parties (Yau et al., 2000). Its potential bases are kinship, fictive kinship, locality and dialect, workplace, and friendship (Kiong & Kee, 1998: 77-79). While particularly strong ties have been noted among family groups and long-term friends (Burt & Opper, 2017;Li et al., 2019;Zhao & Burt, 2018), individuals with no common background can also develop relationships through collaboration and cooperation (Tsang, 1998).
Empathy. Empathy can be defined as the ability to understand someone else's desires and goals (Yau et al., 2000). It reduces barriers to relationship building and ensures people are willing to help others in need (Wang, 2007). Empathy is extremely significant within guanxi ties, since people want to fully understand their partners and their requirements. In the Chinese context, it focuses on the benefactor's behavior, guided by Confucian principles such as 'Do unto others as you wish done unto yourself' (Hwang, 1987). The same principles are embedded in Arab cultures, drawn from the teachings of Islam and Christianity. In a collectivist culture such as the Arab world, empathy is important to establish relationships and build trust before doing business (Al-Omari, 2009;Barakat, 1993;Weir, Sultan, & Van De Bunt, 2019).
Reciprocity. Reciprocity refers to mutual assistance between network members without the need for compensation (Barnett, Yandle, & Naufal, 2013;Berger, Silbiger, Herstein, & Barnes, 2015). It aids long-term relationships as it enhances trust (El-Said & Harrigan, 2009), as well as directly influencing business performance (Berger et al., 2015;Bian, 2018). A guanxi-type relationship carries the implicit potential of boundless exchanges of favors, and continues in the long term through a similarly implicit loyalty to others in the network, reflecting an informal code of reciprocity (Luo, 2007). A person who receives favors but gives none will lose face (Barnes, Yen, & Zhou, 2011). Reciprocity is among the norms that extend the influence of guanxi beyond kinship networks and into wider social interactions (Bian, 2018). In a Chinese business relationship, one guanxi party is expected to provide support to another in difficulty, on the understanding that a return favor will be available when needed (Wang, 2007). In the Middle East, reciprocity 8 A. Shaalan et al.
Personal trust. Personal trust in the context of guanxi chiefly relates to establishing credibility via past history and reputation through the fulfilment of promises and obligations with mutual satisfaction and beneficial interactions (Kiong & Kee, 1998;Yau et al., 2000). Trust can also be seen as an index by which to judge someone's moral integrity and an initial channel to enhance the relationship between two parties (Chen & Chen, 2004). Generally, members of guanxi networks place great value in trust and credibility in both social and business contexts (Burt & Burzynska, 2017;Burt & Opper, 2017). By contrast, the level of interpersonal trust and the quality of relationships in the Middle East is determined largely by family origin (Ivens & Pardo, 2007;Smith, Huang, Harb, & Torres, 2012). In such collectivist cultures, personal trust is therefore important to establish relationships before business can proceed (Al-Omari, 2003Barakat, 1993;Weir et al., 2019). In Arab culture overall, goodwill, trust, and mutual respect are worth more than what is written down (Al-Omari, 2009;Hutchings & Weir, 2006a).
Face. Face has been described as the public image of a person's or one's own prestige and reputation (Tsang, 1998), and as social status attained by completing recognized social roles in a community (Li et al., 2019). It is generated not by self-assessment but by the opinions of other people. Face can not only strengthen the exclusive attachment that members feel towards a guanxi network (Bian & Ikeda, 2014), but can influence the way an entire network is viewed. Overall, face can be seen as a sort of moral norm whereby all members of a group seek to gain it in order to maintain the group's dignity. In Chinese guanxi, face plays a major role in the preservation of networks (Chen, 2001;Shou, Guo, Zhang, & Su, 2011;Tsang, 1998), and has clear relevance in the business context as well as in social and moral spheres. This is no less true in Middle Eastern culture, where it plays a key role in relationship building by emphasizing the notions of continuity and collaboration (Berger et al., 2015).
Affection. Affection is a significant dimension of guanxi, since networks rely on altruism, a desire to help people, and affection-based feelings such as sympathy, care, trust, and love in order to operate successfully (Bian, 2018). The feelings and emotional attachments that exist within guanxi networks frequently reflect members' closeness and the quality of the relationships between them: thus, it is a significant variable Wang, 2007). Yang (1994) highlights that emotional exchanges rather than obligations are key to guanxi. The significance of affection is not limited to Chinese networks; it is to be found across cultures and countries, including those in the Middle East. While its most intimate forms can expect to be found within families (Bian, 2018), it is possible to create affection even in a business relationship by investing in its development (Shou et al., 2011;Wang, 2007).

Research Model and Hypotheses
Guanxi and relationship marketing are different concepts with their own unique characteristics, benefits, and pitfalls (Geddie et al., 2005); however, the possibility of integrating them has long been mooted (Flambard-Ruaud, 2005;Tsang, 1998). While guanxi is an informal interpersonal relationship involving implicit mutual trust (Zhang & Zhang, 2006), relationship marketing is a formal, official agreement defined and protected by a legal organizational framework. Prior research has inferred an association between them that would be important given its potential to improve customer recruitment and retention (Björkman & Kock, 1995;Geddie et al., 2002Geddie et al., , 2005. Other studies have recommended the importance of transferring guanxi-type relationships from the interpersonal to the organizational level (Flambard-Ruaud, 2005;Zhang & Zhang, 2006). The model we present in this research ( Figure 1) is based on the premise that relationship marketing aims to attract, maintain, and enhance customer relationships (Berry, 2002), and that relationship marketing goes beyond the scope of guanxi (Zhang & Zhang, 2006), since it helps retain customers by building organizational relationships (Tang, Chou, & Chen, 2008). Initially, the model assumes that firms encourage all their employees to use their personal guanxi networks (e.g., family, friends, and colleagues) for organizational purposes (e.g., generating business and new customers) by rewarding them with commission or bonuses. Dunfee  (2001) support this assumption, arguing that managers can use guanxitype relationships to access new customers. Since Arab people prefer to deal with those they already know, and consider that establishing a relationship before undertaking a business transaction is fundamental (Al-Omari, 2003Berger et al., 2015;Berger et al., 2019;Hutchings & Weir, 2006a), using guanxitype relationships can therefore be beneficial in the Middle Eastern context. This principle can be applied in many different business sectors, including the tourism and hospitality industry, where the relationship between a potential customer and a hotel's representative (employee) typically develops before a transaction occurs (Yau et al., 2000). Indeed, Flambard-Ruaud (2005) argues that in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, successful business transactions are largely subject to established relationships.
Our proposed model therefore incorporates guanxi principles into existing relationship marketing processes, in essence using guanxi-type relationships to attract customers and relationship marketing to keep them. First, firms would engage all the components of guanxi (bonding, empathy, reciprocity, personal trust, face, and affection) to draw in clients, and, after an initial transaction, would apply relationship marketing programs to build organizational trust and commitment. The conversion of personal to organizational relationships is aimed at ensuring a long-term relationship with the customer, since promoting organizational trust and commitment increase customer retention (Bruhn, 2003), and retention contributes to long-term profits (Tseng, 2007). Several studies have highlighted the importance of this transfer (Barnes, Leonidou, Siu & Leonidou, 2015;Zhang & Zhang, 2006), which enables firms to avoid the pitfalls of using only guanxi, while also providing a critical tool for gaining new clients comparatively cheaply. Once retention has been achieved, customers are themselves encouraged to use their personal guanxi to attract new clients, who in turn are invited to do the same. The final hypothesized outcome of this model is therefore improved customer satisfaction and retention.
Effect of guanxi-type relationships on organizational relationships. Organizational trust and commitment are basic elements in relationship marketing, since the level of trust and commitment between exchange partners is a significant measure of the strength of the organizational relationship (Morgan & Hunt, 1994). In our model, firms would harness their employees' personal networks (e.g., family, friends, locality, fictive kinship) to attract new customers, to be followed (after the initial transaction) by the deployment of traditional relationship marketing programs, to encourage repurchase behavior and link the consumer to the institution, generating organizational trust and commitment. Webster (1992) indicates that repeat transactions lead to relationship formation, while Palmatier, Jarvis, Bechkoff, and Kardes (2009: 13) find that relationship marketing programs significantly shape customers' feelings of gratitude, which in turn leads to stronger organizational relationships. Yen, Abosag, Huang, and Nguyen (2017) note that personal relationships can preserve existing organizational relationships as well as lubricating new ones. Interpersonal networks are therefore crucial in fostering effective organizational relationships (Berger et al., 2015). Based on these arguments, it is hypothesized that: Hypothesis 1: Guanxi-type relationships have a significant positive effect on organizational relationships.
Effects of guanxi-type relationships and organizational relationships on guest satisfaction. Organizational relationships have been shown to be the most important variable in customer satisfaction, both in building  and increasing it (Smith & Barclay, 1997), as well as in generating intention to remain (Morgan & Hunt, 1994;Berry & Parasuraman, 1991). Other studies agree that the level of organizational relationship influences both satisfaction and retention (Sin, Tse, Yau, Chow, Lee, & Lau, 2005). Berger et al. (2015) suggest that in an Arab context, satisfaction can be considered as an outcome of a guanxi-type relationship. Yen et al. (2017) note that human interaction, personal relationships, and friendship can sustain business relationships and lead to all the parties feeling satisfied. In a collectivist culture such as the Arab world, each of the guanxi-type relationship dimensions plays a significant role in building sustainable business relationships with a high level of satisfaction. Empathy along with personal trust, reciprocity, and face all play a key role of establishing business relationships and building satisfaction (Al-Omari, 2003Barakat, 1993;Weir et al., 2019). The importance of empathy in maintaining business relationships and customer satisfaction in the Arab world is also underlined by the fact that the Middle Eastern communication model is receiver-centered, in contrast to the sender-centered Western model. In the Middle East, reciprocity also aids long-term relationships and satisfaction as it ensures a positive outcome, reduces uncertainty and ambiguity, and creates value (El-Said & Harrigan, 2009;Mohamed & Mohamad, 2011), as well as directly influencing business performance (Berger et al., 2015;Bian, 2018). Personal trust is another vital component to establish successful business relationships and ensure satisfaction afterwards, particularly in a culture where the word is the bond, what people shake hands on matters more than what they sign (Al-Omari, 2003Hutchings & Weir, 2006a;Weir et al., 2019). Moreover, in Middle Eastern culture, face plays a key role in relationships by emphasizing the notions of continuity, collaboration, and satisfaction (Berger et al., 2015). Affection also exists in the business relationship (Shou et al., 2011;Wang, 2007). It can be a sentiment-driven instrumental business tie with expectations of reciprocity and relationship retention (Bian, 2018;Butt, Shah, & Sheikh, 2020). Elsharnouby andParsons (2010: 1369) argued that emotions in business relationships lead to a 'moral obligation' of parties to give help and exchange favors which lead to satisfaction. Similarly, Al-Omari (2009) outlined the essential role that emotions play in the cohesion of people in Arabic culture and considered affection as one of the main reasons for establishing satisfaction in business relationships.
In summary, guanxi-type relationships and strong organizational relationships are seen as key variables leading to satisfaction, cooperative behaviors among parties, long-term relationships, and the success of relationship marketing (Morgan & Hunt, 1994;Sin et al., 2005). We therefore propose: Hypothesis 2: Guanxi-type relationships have a significant positive impact on guest satisfaction.
Hypothesis 3: Organizational relationships have a significant positive impact on guest satisfaction.
Effects of organizational relationships, guanxi-type relationships, and satisfaction on guest retention. Customer retentionthe willingness to repurchase from the company in the future (Gupta & Zeithaml, 2006)has been described as a 'state of continuation of a business relationship with the firm' (Keiningham, Cooil, Aksoy, Andreassen, & Weiner, 2007: 364). Driven by customer satisfaction, it shows the presence of a successful relationship between customer and organization (Farquhar, 2005;Reichheld, 1996), with many advantages (Bruhn, 2003;Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996), including greater purchasing frequency and the possibility of cross-selling. Satisfied customers may also be willing to pay a premium price to reduce alternative risk , and might encourage friends and relatives to buy from the company, while not discouraging current clients (Boulding, Kalra, Staelin, & Zeithaml, 1993). In addition, customer satisfaction has also been shown to result in more repeat purchases and lower switching rates (Al-Msallam, 2015), and to lead to increased customer loyalty, since satisfied customers are more likely to repurchase (Akbari, Nazarian, Foroudi, Amiri, & Ezatabadipoor, 2020). Prior studies have focused more on retention and recovery than on attracting new business (Bruhn, 2003), since customer acquisition is considered to be between five and 10 times more costly than retention (Gummesson, 1999).
Building trust and commitment through organizational relationships is key to retention (Palmatier et al., 2009;Tang et al., 2008;Tseng, 2007), creating intent to stay in the relationship, and influencing the parties' long-term orientation (Abosag & Naudé, 2014). In Arab culture, a combination of guanxi-type and organizational relationships could help to retain customers over the long term (Bejou, Ennew, & Palmer, 1998;Little & Marandi, 2003;Mittal & Lassar, 1998), while in the Chinese context, the guanxi components of reciprocity and face may have a positive correlation with relationship longevity .
In Arab culture, retention can be considered as an outcome of a guanxi-type relationship and its dimensions. The closer the bond between the customers and the firm's representative, the more doubt is removed, and the more relationship retention is expected (Tsang, 1998). In addition, in the Middle East, empathy among business partners means they are expected to anticipate the exchange party's needs and feelings without being told; accordingly, this increases the willingness of all parties to maintain a long-term business relationship (Al-Omari, 2009;Wang, 2007;Weir et al., 2019;Yau et al., 2000). Moreover, continuous reciprocity aids long-term relationships as it enhances trust and reduces ambiguity (El-Said & Harrigan, 2009;Mohamed & Mohamad, 2011). In addition, personal trust in Arab culture precedes business and other transactions (Al-Omari, 2003Hutchings & Weir, 2006a). Accordingly, the level of interpersonal trust in the Middle East is of prime importance and supports initiating and retaining long-term relationships (Al-Omari, 2003Barakat, 1993;Weir et al., 2019). Elsharnouby andParsons (2010: 1370) argue that personal trust has a prominent role in business interactions as the Arab world is a risk-averse society. Hyder and Fregidou-Malama (2009: 266) indicate that personal trust is a cultural requirement and presenting in all deals to help maintain long-term relationships. In the Middle Eastern culture, face also plays a major role in maintaining network relationships (Chen, 2001;Shou et al., 2011), and has clear relevance for business as well as in social and moral spheres, emphasizing the notions of continuity and collaboration (Berger et al., 2015). Al-Omari (2009) and Barakat (1993) highlight Arab sensitivity to 'losing face'a concept which is closely related to shame in the Arab worldwhich makes the Arab keen to keep long-term social and business relationships. Finally, affection is key to establishing lasting and firm business relationships (Shou et al., 2011;Wang, 2007). Al-Omari (2009) views emotions as being prevalent in relationships among people in the Arab world and even in a business context. Furthermore, affection can become a sentiment-driven instrumental tie with expectations of reciprocity and relationship retention (Bian, 2018;Butt et al., 2020).
This research explores whether customers introduced through guanxi-type relationships and then engaged in organizational relationships can be satisfied and retained in the long term; whether guanxi-type relationships influence customer retention or only client introduction; and whether organizational relationships and satisfaction eventually contribute to guest retention. We therefore propose: Hypothesis 4: Guanxi-type relationships have a significant positive impact on guest retention.
Hypothesis 5: Organizational relationships have a significant positive impact on guest retention Hypothesis 6: Guest satisfaction has a significant positive impact on guest retention guanxi.

Variables and Measures
After defining the research variables, specifying the constructs, and drawing the boundaries, we generated a set of items to measure each variable, drawn from reliable measures of relevant constructs that had been published and validated in the 14 A. Shaalan et al.
prior literature. Guanxi-type relationships were conceptualized as a second-order construct consisting of six first-order components (bonding, empathy, reciprocity, personal trust, face, and affection), which were each measured by four or five items (see Appendix I, Table I). We borrowed or adopted these items from Sin et al. (2005), Lee and Dawes (2005), Mavondo and Rodrigo (2001), Smith and Barclay (1999), and Yen and . Organizational relationships were operationalized using eight items from Sin et al. (2005) and Ndubisi (2007); while the consequences of guanxi-type relationships (customer satisfaction and retention) were measured using items from Eid (2015), Eid and El-Gohary (2015), Lee and Jun (2007), and Trasorras, Weinstein, and Abratt (2009). These trusted measures formed the basis of a questionnaire that was designed and tested in line with the advice of previous scholars (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988;Churchill, 1979;Eid, 2009;Netemeyer, Bearden, & Sharma, 2003). We piloted the survey with 20 hotel guests to refine the wording and make it more relevant to practices in the Middle East; this was then undertaken with a group similar to the final target population (Salaheldin & Eid, 2007;Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2012). The pre-testing exercise resulted in only minor changes to the existing scales, e.g., to clarify the wording.
To avoid the risk of common method bias (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003), we carefully designed the questionnaire to minimize its occurrence, and assessed its potential presence in the data in two ways (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986), which confirmed it was not a serious concern. Harman's single-variable test showed that the largest factor accounted for 30.18% (variances ranged from 17.56% to 23.41%), and no single factor accounted for more than 50% of the variance; while Lindell and Whitney's (2001) marker variable method showed that all coefficients remained significant after the marker variable had been controlled.

Context of Data Collection and Sampling
The hotel industry is the context of the data collection for this study. The global tourism and hospitality industry has expanded considerably in the past few years, leading to recognition of its importance to the development agenda, given that it is already transforming entire communities as well as individual lives (UNWTO International Tourism Highlights, 2019). By 2019, global export earnings from tourism stood at US $1.7 trillion (UNWTO), while the global hotel industry had an estimated retail value of US $600.49 billion in 2018 (Statista, 2020). These rising figures have been matched by an expansion in jobs and in the nature of the services provided, including the growing popularity of tourism that reflects the cultural heritage of host communities (Akbari et al., 2020).
Despite these significant gains, the hospitality industry as a whole, and the hotel sector within it, remain at the mercy of internal and external factors (Farrington, Curran, Gori, Gorman, & Queenan, 2017) such as political events, economic downturns, social unrest, and fluctuating year-on-year or seasonal demand. The use of guanxi-type relationships is increasingly recognized by both practitioners and academics as an important source of stability in changing external circumstances. In support, Zhang et al. (2020) argue that interpersonal relationships (e.g., guanxi-type relationships) are playing a crucial role in the tourism and hospitality sector. However, deeper insights are still needed, especially in the service context of the hotel industry (Akbari et al., 2020;Mohammed & Rashid, 2018). Furthermore, focusing on market-specific traits of the target market is key to ensuring positive brand outcomes and gaining customer support (Akbari et al., 2020), emphasizing the importance of fully understanding the cultural and social factors of a market such as the Middle East, which could benefit significantly from the economic and development potential of the ongoing expansion of its tourism and hospitality sector.
We conducted the main data collection from January to May 2017, using purposive sampling. The unique target population was hotel guests in the Middle East who had been introduced by a member of staff or another guest with whom they had a personal relationship (guanxi). Since our aim was to analyze the effects of guanxi-type relationships and organizational relationships on guest retention in the Middle East, 17 countries across the region were selected, and 300 suitable hotels were identified in capitals or other major cities, located in areas that represented important destinations for guests. We distributed 1,200 questionnaires evenly between the hotels, of which 651 were completed and returned. Fourteen were eliminated owing to incomplete answers, leaving a total of 637 useable questionnaires (an overall response rate of 53.08%). These responses were spread across the 17 countries in the following proportions: Bahrain 2.4%, Egypt 13.3%, Iran 2.3%, Iraq 2.6%, Jordan 5.1%, Kuwait 3.2%, Lebanon 10.3%, Libya 3.1%, Oman 3.2%, Palestine 3.1%, Qatar 4.5%, Saudi Arabia 9.6%, Sudan 2.8%, Syria 3.1%, Turkey 12.3%, UAE 17.3%, and Yemen 1.8%. The demographics of the respondents are shown in Table 1.

RESULTS
Following Anderson and Gerbing's (1988) recommendation, we used a two-step approach separating the measurement model from the structural model. We assessed the psychometric properties (discriminant validity, convergent validity, and reliability) of the measures used before using structural equation modelling to examine the hypothesized relationships.

Reliability and Validity of the Measures
First, we calculated Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient and items-to-total correlation. This analysis led to the deletion of two items from the guanxi-type relationships construct and one from the organizational relationships construct. All the scales had reliability coefficients ranging from 0.84 to 0.93, which all exceeded the cut-off level of 0.65 set for basic research (Bagozzi, 1994: 96), as shown in Table 2.
We then conducted exploratory factor analysis (see Appendix I, Table I) using all the items (with varimax rotation) to check the unidimensionality of the underlying factor structure. Elements which did not have dominant loadings greater than 0.50 or cross-loadings less than 0.50 were deleted (Hair, Black, Babin, Ralph, & Ronald, 2006). Using an eigenvalue of 1.0 as the cut-off point, four constructs were extracted (explaining more than 74.51% of the extracted variance).

Measurement Model Testing
To achieve strong convergent and discriminant validity, we used confirmatory factor analysis to examine the four measures. Convergent validity explains how the items of a certain variable congregate or share a high percentage of variance (Hair et al., 2006). As the average variance extracted (AVE) for all the measures was more than 0.50, convergent validity was met. The results, presented in Table 3, show that the AVE values were higher than any squared correlation among the variables, hence indicating good discriminant validity of the constructs and the measures were practically different (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Structural Model Testing
After confirming the relevance of the measurement model, we developed and tested a structural model. We used factor scores to represent single item indicators for each construct in the model, and performed path analysis using the maximum likelihood estimates (MLE) method (Jöreskog & Sorbom, 1982). The results and measures for model fit are shown in Table 4. Before testing the hypotheses, we used different non-normal distributions tests to check the normality of the constructs (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Skewness, kurtosis, and the Mahalanobis distance statistics of the final measures were checked (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). No deviation from normality was found for any measure. All the constructs were normally distributed, with deviation well within acceptable ranges. We then progressed to using the MLE method to establish the model. Figure 2 illustrates the path diagram for the causal model.
Since there is no definitive standard of fit, we used different indicators. The Chi-square test was not statistically significant, which indicated a good fit. The other fit indicators, along with the squared multiple correlations, reflected a good overall fit with the data (GFI = 0.95, AGFI = 0.88, CFI = 0.96, NFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.04). As these indicators were acceptable, we decided the structural model was an appropriate tool for hypothesis testing.

RESULTS
The conceptual model and hypotheses were supported by the findings. The estimated standardized parameters for the causal relationships are shown in Table 4. Firstly, guanxi-type relationships were found to have a significant impact Notes: The diagonals represent the average variance extracted and the lower cells represents the squared correlation among constructs. **P < 0.05; ***P < 0.01 on the formation of organizational relationships (Hypothesis 1) (standardized estimate = 0.54, P < 0.001). Therefore, Hypotheses 1 was accepted. Secondly, both guanxi-type relationships (Hypothesis 2) (standardized estimate = 0.39, P < 0.001) and organizational relationships (Hypothesis 3) (standardized estimate = 0.43, P < 0.001) were found to significantly affect guest satisfaction. Therefore, Hypotheses 2 and 3 were accepted. Finally, the suggested factors were found to positively affect guest retention as follows: guanxi-type relationships (Hypothesis 4) (standardized estimate = 0.38, P < 0.001), organizational relationships (Hypothesis 5) (standardized estimate = 0.35, P < 0.001), and guest satisfaction (Hypothesis 6) (standardized estimate = 0.36, P < 0.001). Therefore, Hypotheses 4, 5, and 6 were accepted. The empirical analysis shows that most of the hypothesized relationships are, as expected, significant. The three suggested variables (guanxi-type relationships, organizational relationships, and guest satisfaction) jointly explain 87% of the variance in guest retention. Because the causal effects of guanxi-type relationships and organizational relationships on guest retention can be either direct or indirect, i.e., they are mediated via the effect of guest satisfaction, we calculated the indirect causal effects and their total. Table 5 shows the direct, indirect, and total effects of the suggested factors.

DISCUSSION
Our results shed light on a number of aspects of guanxi-type relationships in the Middle East, including their implications for organizational relationships and customer retention. These are discussed in detail in the following sections.

Guanxi-Type Relationships
We have demonstrated that the dimensions of guanxi-type relationships introduced in the Chinese context can contribute to the formation of such relationships in the Middle East. All the related hypotheses were supported. The associations we have shown between guanxi-type relationships, organizational relationships, guest satisfaction, and retention offer valuable new insights for the hospitality industry in the Middle East, which currently uses only relationship marketing to build organizational relationships with customers (Flambard-Ruaud, 2005;Geddie et al., 2005). Organizational relationship could become a natural progression from guanxi-type relationships (Geddie et al., 2005). By examining the factors influencing guanxi-type relationships in the Middle East, and the outcomes of these relationships in a hospitality context, we have also demonstrated how each proposed dimension of guanxi presents a chance to use a strategy based on these relationships, with the general aim of improving both guest satisfaction and retention.

Organizational Relationships
Our findings that guanxi-type relationships have a direct and significant influence on organizational relationships are in agreement with those of Nicholson, Compeau, and Sethi (2001). Notably, this link had the highest coefficient in our model (0.54), supporting our theoretical view of the crucial role played by personal relationships in the development of organizational relationships. This finding shows that interpersonal relationships are a key antecedent of organizational relationships in the Middle East. In other words, without guanxi-type relationships, organizational relationships might not develop.

Guest Satisfaction
Our results support previous findings that organizational relationships are central to customer satisfaction and retention. For example, Anosike and Eid (2011) and Sin et al. (2002) found that an increase in trust between customer and supplier raised the likelihood of building satisfaction and a long-term relationship. Furthermore, our findings, which were obtained in Middle Eastern collectivist cultures, support a number of previous theoretical views. For instance, Abosag and Naudé (2014) argued that this special type of relationship (guanxi) had a greater chance of achieving customer satisfaction than normal, less culturally dependent types of relationships.

Guest Retention
Guanxi-type relationships, organizational relationships, and guest satisfaction were collectively found to explain 87% of guest retention. The highest coefficient in the model (0.38) was the association between guanxi-type relationships and retention.
We have therefore shown that establishing better interpersonal relationships allows hotels to interact with, respond to, and communicate more effectively with guests, leading to a significant improvement in retention rates. Converting these interpersonal ties into the type of organizational relationship central to relationship marketing (Zhang & Zhang, 2006) increases customer satisfaction and customer retention (Tang et al., 2008;Tseng, 2007). Relationship marketing programs can therefore be supplemented in the Middle Eastern context by adding the use of guanxi-type relationships. This also renders the programs more adaptable to non-Western cultural characteristics and problems (e.g., lack of trust) (Flambard-Ruaud, 2005). The catalytic effect of guest satisfaction on retention was also clearly shown. We were initially surprised to find that guanxi-type relationships had a similar effect to organizational relationships and guest satisfaction on retention. However, we realized this was predictable, since the direct effect is enhanced by the indirect positive effect (0.41); it is not just the guanxi-type relationships themselves that lead to positive perceptions and retention, but also the hotels' efforts to build on them by developing organizational relationships.

Managerial Contributions
We have clearly shown the importance of integrating guanxi into business practices, given its potential to improve customer recruitment, satisfaction, and retention, thereby delivering significant advances for the company. It also enhances managers' understanding of the different variables that make up guanxi-type relationships, enabling them to deploy better positioning strategies. On the basis of our results, Middle Eastern hotels should consider applying guanxi-type relationships and converting them into organizational relationships (Zhang & Zhang, 2006), thus improving guest satisfaction and retention (Tang et al., 2008;Tseng, 2007). In this hybrid strategy, hotels would use employees' interpersonal relationships to attract new guests as a precursor to the building organizational ties through relationship marketing. The many benefits of this strategy include building long-term relationships, avoiding the risks of strategies based only on guanxi-type relationships (Arias, 1998), and attracting new customers at little cost (Dunfee & Warren, 2001).
Our findings also enhance manager understanding of the interplay between organizational relationships, guest satisfaction, and guest retention, offering significant advantages to hotels (Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996). Eid and El-Gohary (2015) note that retained customers promote the company among their relatives and friends. Such positive word-of-mouth communication has a significant indirect effect on company returns. In support, Al-Msallam (2015), states that customer satisfaction leads to lower switching rates, and more repeat purchases. Similarly, satisfaction is seen as a prerequisite to developing customer loyalty, with satisfied customers showing more loyalty in their purchase decisions (Akbari et al., 2020). Finally, our results show managers the importance of training employees so they build trusting relationships with guests and show empathy when handling their problems, as this strengthens organizational relationships. This should also help increase guest bonding with the hotel (Geddie et al., 2005).

Theoretical Contributions
Our study makes a number of theoretical contributions. Firstly, it introduces a novel, unified model integrating guanxi into the existing relationship marketing framework. This shows the potential for using interpersonal relationships to attract customers and organizational relationships to retain them. This theoretically derived model has implications for the recruitment, satisfaction, and retention of customers, as well as offering valuable insights into cultural factors. Our study therefore contributes significantly to both the guanxi and relationship marketing literature by linking the two strands and creating a new concept. While some prior studies had inferred an association between social networks and relationship marketing (Geddie et al., 2002(Geddie et al., , 2005Shaalan et al., 2013), none had sought to link them, and no unified model previously existed. Furthermore, we have tested this model quantitatively and provided evidence of its applicability and effectiveness in the hotel sector in the Middle East. By introducing a means of converting guanxi-type ties into the organizational links involved in relationship marketing, we have also demonstrated a new route to increased customer satisfaction and retention.
Furthermore, we clearly show the outcomes of integrating guanxi-type relationships into marketing strategies in the Middle East. Our results can be considered unique, since this is the first study to deal with this problem and the unique unit of analysis, namely hotel guests in the Middle East who had been introduced by an employee or another guest with whom they had a personal relationship. Previous studies on relationship marketing, which considered the customer as the unit of analysis, dealt only with the business customer or final consumer. In addition to providing the first empirical evidence that a company can attract customers using guanxi and retain them using marketing strategies, we validate previous research on the impact of relationship marketing on customer retention, by testing relationship marketing and social network theories in a new geographical area (the Middle East), with a different unit of analysis and a unique problem. We therefore extend both the guanxi and relationship marketing literature by providing much-needed empirical support for the use and influence of guanxi-type relationships into the framework of relationship marketing in the Middle East.
Finally, we contribute to the literature by providing empirical evidence from the Middle Eastan under-researched region in terms of business-to-customer relationshipson the role of guanxi-type relationships and organizational relationships in enhancing customer satisfaction and retention.

Limitations and Future Research Directions
As with any research, there are some limitations. Since this study was conducted exclusively in the Middle East, its outputs should be interpreted with care outside collectivist cultures or those with guanxi-type relationships, and cannot be considered as generalizable to Western cultures without further exploration. More research is therefore needed on all aspects of relationships based on social networks in different regions. The applicability and effectiveness of our research model should be tested in these settings. A comparative study applying the model in different cultures, including Asia and the West, would also enhance understanding of the nature of social networks in varying settings. There is also a need for both more qualitative and quantitative studies on all aspects of social networks in Western, Arab, and Asian cultures.
Since our research targeted only hotel guests, future studies using the model in different Middle Eastern sectors would strengthen generalizability, and comparing these results with our findings would also enrich the literature. Another potential limitation comes from the quantitative, customer-centered design of the empirical study. Future research could explore managers' and employees' perspectives, or follow a qualitative design to explore the constructs in greater depth, as well as testing the applicability of the concepts and the model in business-to-business contexts. Finally, our cross-sectional sampling approach means the potential causal impacts between the constructs can be inferred from the underlying theory rather than from the data itself (Rudestam & Newton, 2007); a longitudinal research design would help confirm the potential causal relationships in our study. We hope our findings augment the literature and provide a reference point from which subsequent research can evolve.

CONCLUSION
Our study has investigated guanxi holistically and has expanded understanding of its dimensions beyond China, specifically in the Middle East, while also highlighting its differences with Western networks. We have explored the effects of incorporating guanxi-type relationships into existing relationship marketing frameworks in Middle Eastern countries; how these relationships affect guest satisfaction and 24 A. Shaalan et al.
retention; and how they can be successfully transformed into organizational relationships. All six of our hypotheses were supported. Our main contribution is the introduction of a model blending guanxi-type relationships with relationship marketing. Overall, our findings indicate that: (a) guanxi-type relationships in the Middle Eastern have six dimensionsbonding, empathy, reciprocity, personal trust, face, and affection; (b) guanxi-type relationships, and organizational relationships are antecedents of Middle Eastern guests' satisfaction; and (c) guanxi-type relationships, organizational relationships, and guest satisfaction have positive impacts on intention to return.